Cinnamon

Cinnamomum verum / Cinnamomum cassia

Common & Folk Names

• Ceylon Cinnamon (True Cinnamon)
• Cassia Cinnamon (Chinese Cinnamon)
• Sweet Wood
• Cannelle (French)
• Canela (Spanish)
• Dalchini (Hindi)

Plant Family

Lauraceae (Laurel Family)

Geographic Location

Cinnamomum verum (Ceylon Cinnamon) is native to Sri Lanka and Southern India, and is now cultivated in Madagascar, the Seychelles, and other tropical regions. Cinnamomum cassia (Cassia Cinnamon) is native to China, Myanmar, and Southeast Asia, and is widely cultivated throughout Asia, particularly in China, Indonesia, and Vietnam.

Habitat

These small to medium-sised evergreen trees thrive in tropical forests with high humidity. They prefer partial shade in their natural habitat, particularly when young, growing in the understory of larger trees. Ceylon Cinnamon trees typically reach 10-15 metres in height, whilst Cassia trees can grow slightly larger.

Growing Conditions

Sun: Prefers partial shade when young, but can tolerate full sun once established. Young plants benefit from dappled sunlight.

Soil: Requires deep, well-drained, sandy loam with high organic content. Prefers slightly acidic to neutral soil (pH 5.5-7.0). Good drainage is essential to prevent root rot.

Propagation: Propagated by seed or semi-hardwood cuttings. Seeds germinate within 2-3 weeks in warm, humid conditions. Cuttings root best with bottom heat and high humidity.

Care: Requires consistent warmth (20-30°C), high humidity (70-80%), and protection from frost. Trees are typically coppiced (cut back) to encourage multiple shoots for bark harvest. Water regularly during dry periods.

Harvesting Guidelines

The inner bark is harvested during the rainy season when moisture makes it most pliable and easier to peel. Two-year-old shoots are cut near the base, and the outer bark is scraped away. The inner bark is then carefully peeled in long strips using a curved knife. As these strips dry, they naturally curl into the characteristic “quill” or stick shape. Ceylon Cinnamon produces thinner, more delicate quills with a tan colour, whilst Cassia produces thicker, darker reddish-brown quills. Harvest in the morning for best quality.

Parts Used

• Inner bark (primary medicinal part)
• Bark oil (essential oil)
• Leaf oil (less common in herbalism)

Constituents & their Actions

Volatile Oils:

These aromatic compounds provide cinnamon’s distinctive scent and flavour, whilst contributing significantly to its medicinal properties. The volatile oil profile differs notably between Ceylon and Cassia varieties. Some of the main volatile oils in cinnamon are:

• Cinnamaldehyde (50-75% in Cassia, 1-5% in Ceylon)
• Eugenol (higher in Ceylon bark and leaf oil, 5-18%)
• Linalool
• Cinnamyl acetate (higher in Ceylon, 1-5%)
• Beta-caryophyllene
• 1,8-cineole

The main actions of these volatile oils are:

• Anti-inflammatory
• Antimicrobial (antibacterial and antifungal)
• Circulatory stimulant (warming)
• Insulin-potentiating
• Antispasmodic

Polyphenol Polymers (Type-A Proanthocyanidins):

These water-soluble compounds are the key active constituents responsible for cinnamon’s effects on blood sugar regulation. They are particularly abundant in the aqueous (water) extract of cinnamon. Some of the main polyphenol polymers in cinnamon are:

• Type-A trimers (MW 864 daltons)
• Type-A tetramers (MW 1152 daltons)
• Epicatechin oligomers
• Procyanidin polymers

The main actions of these polyphenol polymers are:

• Insulin-potentiating (enhancing insulin sensitivity)
• Antioxidant
• Anti-inflammatory
• Protection of pancreatic beta cells

Tannins:

These compounds provide a mild toning (astringent) quality and contribute to cinnamon’s ability to tighten tissues and reduce minor secretions.

The main action of tannins is:

• Toning effect (astringent)
• Antimicrobial (disrupting bacterial cell membranes)

Coumarins:

These compounds vary dramatically between varieties, which has important safety implications. Cassia Cinnamon contains very high levels (up to 1% coumarin), whilst Ceylon Cinnamon contains only trace amounts (0.004%). Some of the coumarins in cinnamon are:

• Coumarin (primarily in Cassia)
• Coumarin derivatives

The main actions of these coumarins are:

• Anticoagulant (blood-thinning) in high doses
• Can be hepatotoxic (toxic to the liver) when consumed in excess

Actions with Mechanisms

Insulin-Potentiating & Hypoglycaemic:

The Type-A proanthocyanidin polymers enhance insulin sensitivity by upregulating insulin receptor activity through stimulation of autophosphorylation of the insulin receptor, which in turn activates the downstream signalling cascade. These polyphenols also stimulate the translocation of glucose transporter proteins (GLUT4) to cell membranes, which in turn increases cellular glucose uptake. Cinnamaldehyde may additionally inhibit intestinal enzymes (alpha-glucosidase and alpha-amylase) that break down carbohydrates, which in turn slows glucose absorption and moderates post-meal blood sugar spikes. This multi-mechanism approach supports healthy blood glucose regulation and insulin sensitivity.

Anti-inflammatory:

Cinnamaldehyde and eugenol inhibit the activation of NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B), a key transcription factor that regulates inflammatory gene expression, which in turn reduces the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6. These volatile oils also inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and lipoxygenase enzymes, which in turn prevents the synthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes that promote inflammation. The polyphenolic compounds provide additional anti-inflammatory support through their antioxidant activity, which in turn reduces oxidative stress that can trigger inflammatory cascades. This makes cinnamon useful for both acute and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Antimicrobial:

The volatile oils, particularly cinnamaldehyde and eugenol, disrupt the cell membranes of bacteria and fungi by inserting themselves into the lipid bilayer, which in turn increases membrane permeability and causes leakage of cellular contents. This mechanism leads to cell death in a broad spectrum of pathogens including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, and Candida krusei. Cinnamon oil has also demonstrated the ability to disrupt fungal biofilms, breaking down the protective matrix that allows organisms like Candida to resist conventional antifungals, which in turn makes the organisms more vulnerable to elimination. The essential oil also inhibits ergosterol biosynthesis in fungal cells, which in turn compromises membrane integrity.

Circulatory Stimulant (Warming):

Cinnamaldehyde activates transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, particularly TRPA1, which in turn triggers a sensation of warmth and stimulates peripheral blood flow. This activation also promotes the release of nitric oxide from endothelial cells, which in turn causes vasodilation and improves circulation to the extremities. This warming action makes cinnamon particularly useful for people with cold hands and feet, poor circulation, and conditions associated with stagnation. The improved circulation also supports digestive function and helps move nutrients and waste products throughout the body.

Digestive Stimulant (Carminative):

The volatile oils relax smooth muscle in the gastrointestinal tract through direct action on muscle fibres and modulation of nervous system activity, which in turn allows trapped gas to be expelled and relieves bloating and cramping. Cinnamon also stimulates the secretion of digestive enzymes and bile through bitter receptor activation on the tongue and in the digestive tract, which in turn enhances the breakdown and absorption of nutrients. The warming, aromatic quality increases blood flow to the digestive organs, which in turn supports digestive efficiency. This makes cinnamon particularly useful for sluggish digestion, intestinal gas, and digestive discomfort, especially when associated with cold or stagnation.

Antioxidant:

The polyphenolic compounds, particularly the proanthocyanidins and flavonoids, act as powerful free radical scavengers by donating electrons to unstable molecules, which in turn neutralises them and prevents oxidative damage to cells. These compounds also upregulate the body’s own antioxidant enzyme systems, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, which in turn provides sustained antioxidant protection. By reducing oxidative stress, cinnamon helps protect pancreatic beta cells from damage, supports cardiovascular health, and may help prevent diabetic complications.

Neuroprotective:

Eugenol and other volatile compounds cross the blood-brain barrier and exert protective effects on neural tissue. Research suggests these compounds may inhibit the aggregation of tau proteins and prevent the formation of amyloid plaques, which in turn may offer protective benefits in neurodegenerative conditions. Cinnamon also improves insulin signalling in the brain, which in turn supports cognitive function and may help prevent insulin resistance-related cognitive decline. Animal studies show improved memory and learning outcomes with cinnamon supplementation.

Antiplatelet & Cardioprotective:

Cinnamaldehyde inhibits thromboxane A2 formation and calcium mobilisation in platelets, which in turn reduces platelet aggregation and blood clot formation. The polyphenolic compounds help maintain healthy cholesterol levels by reducing LDL oxidation and supporting lipid metabolism, which in turn protects cardiovascular health. Cinnamon also helps lower blood pressure through vasodilation and may reduce the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) that contribute to cardiovascular damage in diabetic individuals.

Main Use

Cinnamon’s primary use in modern herbal medicine is as an insulin-potentiating agent to support healthy blood sugar regulation in people with type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). It is particularly valuable for individuals with elevated fasting blood glucose, insulin resistance, and poor glucose tolerance. The Type-A proanthocyanidins enhance insulin sensitivity and improve glucose uptake by cells, making the body’s insulin more efficient.

Cinnamon is also extensively used as a circulatory stimulant and warming digestive aid. It gently stimulates blood flow to the extremities, making it useful for cold hands and feet, poor circulation, and conditions of stagnation. As a digestive remedy, it relieves intestinal gas, bloating, and sluggish digestion, particularly when these conditions are associated with a sensation of cold or when symptoms worsen in cold weather. The antimicrobial properties make it valuable for fungal overgrowth, particularly oral and intestinal candidiasis, and for general digestive infections.

Preparations

Tea/Decoction: Use 1-2 teaspoons (2-4 grams) of powdered cinnamon or 1 cinnamon stick per cup of boiling water. Simmer for 10-15 minutes to extract the water-soluble polyphenols. Strain and drink 2-3 times daily, preferably with meals for blood sugar support.

Tincture: (1:5 in 60% alcohol). Take 2-4 mL, 3 times daily. The tincture extracts both volatile oils and some polyphenolic compounds, though water-soluble proanthocyanidins are better extracted in decoctions.

Powder: The whole powdered bark is the most effective form for blood sugar support, as it contains both water-soluble polyphenols and volatile oils. Add ½-1 teaspoon (1-3 grams) to food, smoothies, or warm beverages 1-3 times daily. Can be mixed with honey and taken directly.

Infused Honey: Add cinnamon powder or sticks to raw honey and let infuse for several weeks. Take 1 teaspoon as needed for digestive support or add to herbal teas.

Essential Oil: For external or aromatic use only due to high concentration. Dilute 2-3 drops in 5 mL of carrier oil for topical application or use in diffusers. Never take essential oil internally without professional guidance.

Culinary: Liberal use of cinnamon in cooking is an excellent way to incorporate its benefits. Add to porridge, curries, stews, baked goods, and hot beverages.

Dosage

Dried Herb Powder (Blood Sugar Support): 1-3 grams (approximately ½-1 teaspoon) daily, divided into 2-3 doses with meals. Clinical studies have used 1-6 grams daily. Note: Use Ceylon Cinnamon for regular therapeutic dosing to avoid coumarin toxicity.

Dried Herb Powder (Digestive/General): 1-2 grams (approximately ½ teaspoon), 2-3 times daily as needed.

Tincture (1:5, 60%): 2-4 mL (approximately 40-80 drops), 3 times daily.

Decoction: 1 cup (made with 2-4 grams of cinnamon), 2-3 times daily.

Essential Oil (External): 2-3 drops in 5 mL carrier oil for massage or topical application. Use in diffuser as directed.

Culinary: Use freely in cooking; culinary amounts are generally safe for most people.

Safety & Drug Interactions

Scientific Evidence

Glycaemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes: Multiple systematic reviews and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials show that cinnamon supplementation (typically 1-6 grams daily) significantly reduces fasting blood glucose, HbA1c (a marker of long-term blood sugar control), and insulin resistance in people with type 2 diabetes. A 2024 meta-analysis of 24 RCTs found statistically significant reductions in fasting blood sugar and HOMA-IR (a measure of insulin resistance). Effects appear more pronounced in individuals with poorer baseline glycaemic control. Some studies show mixed results, possibly due to variations in cinnamon species, preparation methods, and study populations.

Insulin Sensitivity Mechanisms: In vitro studies consistently demonstrate that aqueous cinnamon extracts (containing Type-A proanthocyanidins) enhance insulin receptor autophosphorylation and GLUT4 translocation, supporting the proposed mechanism for improved insulin sensitivity. Animal studies show activation of PPAR (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors) pathways, which are involved in insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism.

Antimicrobial Activity: Numerous in vitro studies confirm that cinnamon essential oil, particularly cinnamaldehyde, demonstrates potent antibacterial activity against common foodborne pathogens including E. coli, Salmonella, and Staphylococcus aureus, including antibiotic-resistant strains. Clinical studies show effectiveness against oral and intestinal candidiasis, with one study reporting 72% clearance of intestinal Candida after 14 days of treatment with cinnamon oil. The oil disrupts fungal biofilms and cell membranes, inhibits ergosterol biosynthesis, and demonstrates activity against multiple Candida species.

Anti-inflammatory Effects: Both in vitro and animal studies demonstrate that cinnamaldehyde and other cinnamon compounds inhibit key inflammatory pathways (NF-κB, COX-2, LOX), reducing inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP), TNF-α, and IL-6. Human studies in people with type 2 diabetes show reduced inflammatory markers with cinnamon supplementation.

Cardiovascular Protection: Studies suggest cinnamon may reduce total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides whilst increasing HDL cholesterol in people with type 2 diabetes. Meta-analyses show modest but significant improvements in lipid profiles. Antiplatelet effects have been demonstrated in vitro and may contribute to cardiovascular protection.

Neuroprotective Effects: Animal studies show that cinnamon extracts may protect against neurodegenerative changes, reduce tau aggregation, and improve cognitive function in diabetic and obese animal models. Human studies are limited but preliminary findings are promising.

Western Energetics

Temperature: Hot/Warming. Cinnamon is one of the warmest herbs in the materia medica, strongly stimulating circulation and metabolism. It brings heat to cold conditions, particularly in the digestive system and extremities. It moves stagnation and activates sluggish systems.

Moisture: Drying. Cinnamon’s pungent and astringent qualities reduce excess dampness. It is useful for conditions characterised by sluggishness, phlegm, fungal overgrowth, and fluid accumulation. It helps “dry out” damp, boggy tissues.

Tissue State: Primarily indicated for Cold/Depression (sluggish metabolism, poor circulation, cold extremities, slow digestion) and Damp/Stagnation (fungal overgrowth, metabolic congestion, fluid retention, sluggish lymph). Also useful for Atrophy/Exhaustion when tissues need warming and stimulation to restore function.

Taste

Pungent: The dominant taste, arising primarily from cinnamaldehyde. This pungency indicates cinnamon’s warming, dispersing, and circulating qualities. The pungent taste stimulates digestive secretions and moves energy through the body.

Sweet: A pronounced sweet taste and aroma that is characteristic of cinnamon. This sweetness indicates nourishing and harmonising properties, and corresponds with cinnamon’s beneficial effects on the spleen and pancreas in traditional systems. The sweet taste also makes it palatable and helps moderate the intense heat.

Astringent: A subtle astringent or drying quality from the tannins, contributing to cinnamon’s ability to tonify tissues and reduce excess secretions or dampness.

Slightly Bitter: A very subtle bitter undertone, particularly when chewed, which contributes to digestive stimulation and bile production.

Plant Lore

Cinnamon has been one of the most highly prised and expensive spices throughout history. Ancient Egyptians used it in embalming mixtures and as a perfume, valuing it as much as gold. The Bible mentions cinnamon in the Song of Solomon and Exodus, where it was used as one of the holy anointing oils. Moses was instructed to use cinnamon in the sacred anointing oil for the tabernacle.

In medieval Europe, cinnamon was a luxury item, available only to the wealthy. Merchants kept the sources of cinnamon secret for centuries to maintain high prices, spinning fantastical tales about its origins—including stories of giant birds that used cinnamon sticks to build their nests in inaccessible cliffs.

The Portuguese discovered Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in 1505 and monopolised the cinnamon trade for over a century. The Dutch later seised control, followed by the British. This “cinnamon wars” period saw the spice literally worth its weight in gold.

In traditional Chinese medicine, cinnamon (called Rou Gui) is considered a “kidney yang tonic,” used to warm the interior, strengthen yang, and dispel cold. It has been used for thousands of years to treat cold-related pain, poor circulation, and to restore vital fire to weakened constitutions.

In Ayurvedic medicine, cinnamon (Dalchini) is classified as pungent, sweet, and heating, used to pacify Kapha and Vata doshas. It is traditionally used to kindle digestive fire (agni), support circulation, and balance blood sugar.

Throughout many cultures, cinnamon has been associated with prosperity, protection, and spiritual awareness. It was burned as incense in temples and used in love potions and prosperity charms. In modern times, it remains a symbol of warmth, comfort, and celebration, featuring prominently in festive cooking worldwide.

Additional Information

Ceylon vs Cassia – Important Distinction:
The two main types of cinnamon used medicinally and culinarily have important differences. Ceylon Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) is often called “true cinnamon” and produces thin, tan-coloured, delicate quills with a sweeter, more refined flavour. It contains minimal coumarin (approximately 0.004%) and is safer for regular therapeutic use. Cassia Cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia, also includes C. loureirii and C. burmanii) produces thicker, darker reddish-brown quills with a stronger, more pungent flavour. It contains very high levels of coumarin (up to 1%) and should be used with caution in therapeutic doses due to potential liver toxicity and interactions with blood thinners.

Most cinnamon sold in supermarkets and used in commercial products is Cassia due to its lower cost and stronger flavour. For blood sugar support and other therapeutic uses at doses above culinary amounts, Ceylon Cinnamon is strongly preferred to avoid coumarin toxicity.

New Zealand Sources:

• Ceylon Cinnamon can be purchased from speciality spice shops, health food stores, and online suppliers such as Lotus Oils NZ and The Herb Farm NZ.
• Available in various sizes in both powder and quill/stick forms.
• Organic Ceylon Cinnamon powder available from speciality suppliers.

Companion Planting:
In tropical gardens where cinnamon can be grown, it benefits from the shade of taller trees and the company of plants that appreciate similar humid, warm conditions. It grows well alongside other tropical herbs and spices such as cardamom, ginger, and turmeric.

Research Considerations:
The quality and consistency of cinnamon products used in research varies considerably, which may explain some conflicting results in clinical trials. The amount of active cinnamaldehyde varies among species and even among different products from the same species. Manufacturing processes and extraction methods also affect the concentration of active constituents. When choosing cinnamon for therapeutic use, quality matters significantly.

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