Nutmeg

Myristica fragrans Houtt.

Common & Folk Names

• Nutmeg
• True Nutmeg
• Jatiphala (Sanskrit/Ayurveda)
• Jaiphal (Hindi)
• Jati Kosa
• Mace (the dried aril/outer covering – separate spice from same fruit)

Plant Family

Myristicaceae (Nutmeg family)

Geographic Location

Native to the Banda Islands of the Moluccas (Spice Islands), Indonesia. Now cultivated throughout tropical regions worldwide including Grenada (the “Spice Isle”), India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and parts of the Caribbean. Thrives exclusively in humid tropical climates.

Habitat

A tropical evergreen tree thriving in the humid, shaded understory of lowland tropical rainforests. Requires consistently warm, wet conditions with high humidity. Found at low to moderate elevations in tropical regions.

Growing Conditions

Sun: Prefers partial shade, especially when young; mature trees tolerate more sun but still benefit from some canopy protection

Soil: Requires deep, rich, well-drained volcanic or loamy soil with high organic matter; pH 6.0-7.0

Climate: Exclusively tropical with no frost tolerance; requires consistent temperatures of 20-30°C, high humidity (80%+), and annual rainfall of 1500-2500 mm evenly distributed

Propagation: Grown from seed (germination takes 30-60 days). Trees are dioecious, requiring both male and female trees for fruit production; typically one male tree can pollinate 10-20 female trees. Trees begin fruiting at 7-9 years of age

Care: Regular watering during dry periods, mulching, and protection from strong winds. Harvest begins when fruits split naturally

NZ Planting Calendar

Sowing/Planting: Not suitable for outdoor cultivation in most of New Zealand due to climate requirements

Climate needs: Tropical climate only; requires consistently warm temperatures (20-30°C year-round), high humidity, and no frost

Growing in NZ: Only viable in warmest regions (far north) or in heated greenhouses; not commercially viable

Note: Native to Indonesia (Banda Islands); tropical tree requiring very specific conditions; nutmeg and mace available as imported dried spices in NZ

Harvesting Guidelines

Nutmeg fruits are harvested when they split open naturally on the tree, revealing the seed covered by the bright red, lacy aril (mace). The fruit is collected, and the aril is carefully removed and dried separately to produce mace. The seed is then dried slowly over several weeks to months until the kernel rattles inside the hard shell, indicating proper drying. The shell is cracked open to retrieve the nutmeg kernel (the actual nutmeg spice). Proper drying is essential to prevent mold and preserve volatile oils. Commercial production requires consistent tropical conditions.

Parts Used

• The dried seed kernel (nutmeg)
• The dried aril/arillus (mace – separate spice with similar but milder chemistry)

Constituents & their Actions

Nutmeg contains a complex mixture of volatile oils, fixed oils, and bioactive compounds. The specific composition varies with growing conditions, processing, and storage. CRITICAL: The psychoactive and toxic phenylpropanoid compounds require extreme caution.

Volatile Essential Oil (5-15% of seed):

The aromatic fraction contains multiple compound classes with overlapping medicinal and toxic properties.

Monoterpene Hydrocarbons (Primary volatile fraction – approximately 60-80% of essential oil):

These compounds provide nutmeg’s characteristic aroma and contribute significantly to its therapeutic carminative and antimicrobial properties. Main monoterpenes include:

• Sabinene (most abundant – often 30-50% of essential oil)
• α-Pinene
• β-Pinene
• β-Myrcene
• Limonene
• γ-Terpinene
• Camphene
• α-Terpineol

The main actions of these monoterpenes are:

• Carminative: Relax gastrointestinal smooth muscle, relieving gas and cramping
• Antimicrobial: Demonstrate activity against bacteria and fungi by disrupting cell membranes
• Antioxidant: Scavenge free radicals and reduce oxidative stress
• Anti-inflammatory: Reduce production of pro-inflammatory mediators
• Expectorant: Support respiratory function through volatile oil excretion

Other Volatile Compounds:

• Eugenol (0.5-3%)
• Isoeugenol
• Terpinene-4-ol
• Linalool

The main actions include:

• Antimicrobial: Particularly eugenol demonstrates strong antibacterial effects
• Analgesic: Local anesthetic and pain-relieving properties (eugenol)
• Antioxidant: Free radical scavenging

Lignans and Neolignans:

These phenolic compounds contribute to nutmeg’s biological activity without the toxicity concerns of phenylpropanoids. Main lignans include:

• Macelignan (well-studied)
• Licarin A and Licarin B
• Dehydrodiisoeugenol
• Erythro/threo-austrobailignan-6
• Various other neolignans

The main actions of these lignans are:

• Antimicrobial: Particularly effective against oral bacteria including Streptococcus mutans (cavity-causing bacteria)
• Antioxidant: Protect against oxidative damage and lipid peroxidation
• Anti-inflammatory: Modulate inflammatory pathways
• Potential neuroprotective effects

Fixed Oils/Fatty Acids (25-40% of seed weight):

The non-volatile lipid fraction provides texture and contains important fatty acids. Main components include:

• Trimyristin (glyceryl trimyristate – dominant fixed oil)
• Myristic acid (saturated fatty acid C14:0)
• Other fatty acids in smaller amounts

The main actions of fixed oils are:

• Demulcent: Soothing, coating action that buffers the potentially irritating volatile oils
• Nutritive: Provides energy and fat-soluble compound carriers

Proteins, Starches, and Minerals:

Nutmeg contains approximately 5-10% protein, starch, resins, and various minerals contributing to nutritional and medicinal properties.

Tannins (Mild Astringent Compounds):

Present in small amounts, contributing mild astringent properties.

Actions with Mechanisms

Carminative and Antispasmodic (Primary Safe Medicinal Use):
The volatile monoterpenes, particularly sabinene and α-pinene, directly relax smooth muscle tissue in the gastrointestinal tract through calcium channel modulation and direct effects on muscarinic receptors, which in turn reduces spasms, cramping, and tonic contractions. This smooth muscle relaxation facilitates the expulsion of trapped intestinal gas and relieves bloating, which in turn provides relief from flatulence, abdominal distension, and digestive discomfort. The warming, aromatic quality of the volatile oils also stimulates peristalsis in a coordinated manner, which in turn helps move gas and contents through the digestive tract. This is nutmeg’s primary and safest medicinal application, effective at very small (culinary/pinch) doses.

Digestive Stimulant and Aromatic Bitter:
The pungent, slightly bitter flavor profile of nutmeg, combined with its aromatic volatile compounds, stimulates bitter taste receptors on the tongue and in the upper digestive tract, which in turn triggers the cephalic phase of digestion including increased saliva production, gastric acid secretion, and digestive enzyme release. The warming aromatic oils further stimulate bile production from the liver and gallbladder, which in turn enhances fat digestion and overall digestive efficiency. This makes nutmeg traditionally valuable for sluggish digestion, poor appetite, and digestive weakness, particularly in constitutions characterized by coldness and stagnation.

Antimicrobial (Broad-Spectrum):
The lignans (particularly macelignan) and monoterpenes demonstrate significant antimicrobial activity against a wide range of bacterial, fungal, and some viral pathogens through multiple mechanisms. The volatile oils disrupt microbial cell membranes by integrating into the lipid bilayer and increasing permeability, which in turn causes leakage of cellular contents and cell death. Macelignan specifically demonstrates potent activity against Streptococcus mutans and other oral bacteria, which in turn explains traditional use for oral health and bad breath. The combination of eugenol and monoterpenes shows activity against intestinal pathogens, food-borne bacteria (E. coli, Salmonella), and fungi (Candida, Aspergillus), which in turn supports traditional uses for digestive infections and as a food preservative.

Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic:
The monoterpenes, particularly sabinene, inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) and reduce the expression of inflammatory enzymes including cyclooxygenase (COX) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which in turn decreases prostaglandin and nitric oxide production that mediate inflammation and pain. Eugenol provides additional analgesic effects through local anesthetic action on nerve endings and modulation of pain receptors, which in turn reduces pain perception. These combined mechanisms make nutmeg oil valuable when applied topically for joint pain, muscular aches, rheumatism, and neuralgia, though internal use requires extreme caution due to toxicity risks.

Mild Astringent:
The tannin content provides a gentle tightening and toning effect on tissues, which in turn can help reduce excessive secretions, minor diarrhea, and tissue laxity. This mild astringency complements the antimicrobial and antidiarrheal effects, which in turn makes small amounts of nutmeg traditionally useful in cases of diarrhea with intestinal irritation.

Antioxidant:
The combination of monoterpenes (sabinene, α-pinene), phenolic compounds (lignans), and small amounts of other antioxidants work together to neutralize free radicals through direct radical scavenging and by enhancing endogenous antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase), which in turn reduces oxidative stress and protects cellular components from oxidative damage. This antioxidant capacity may contribute to neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, and cardioprotective effects observed in research, though clinical applications remain investigational.

Neuroprotective (Investigational):
Research suggests myristicin may inhibit acetylcholinesterase and monoamine oxidase enzymes at sub-toxic doses, which in turn could theoretically support memory and cognition, with some animal studies showing potential benefits in Alzheimer’s disease models. However, the narrow margin between potential therapeutic effects and severe toxicity makes this application extremely dangerous and NOT recommended for self-medication. Clinical research in humans is lacking.

Main Use

Nutmeg’s ONLY safe and appropriate internal medicinal use is as a warming carminative and digestive stimulant in very small, culinary amounts (a “pinch” or grating) for gas, bloating, nausea, sluggish digestion, and diarrhea, especially when these conditions are associated with a sensation of coldness or weakness in the digestive system.

Internally (CULINARY DOSES ONLY – typically 200-500 mg maximum):

• Flatulence and intestinal gas
• Abdominal bloating and cramping
• Sluggish digestion and poor appetite
• Nausea (especially in combination with warming spices in milk or digestive formulas)
• Diarrhea with intestinal weakness (in combination formulas like Ayurvedic Jatiphaladi Churna)
• As a warming digestive tonic in cold constitutions

Topically (Nutmeg essential oil diluted in carrier oil):

• Joint pain, arthritis, and rheumatism (as rubefacient/warming liniment)
• Muscular aches and neuralgia
• Topical pain relief (though many safer alternatives exist)

Preparations

Culinary Spice (SAFEST METHOD): Freshly grated in very small quantities (a “pinch” – approximately 100-200 mg, no more than 1/4 teaspoon) added to warm milk, foods, or digestive teas. This is the safest and most appropriate way to use nutmeg medicinally. The warming milk preparation is traditional in Ayurveda for promoting sleep and calming digestion

Powdered Herb: EXTREME CAUTION: 200-500 mg maximum (approximately 1/8 to 1/4 teaspoon) mixed with warm water, milk, or food. DO NOT exceed this amount under any circumstances

Medicated Oil (TOPICAL ONLY): Powdered nutmeg or essential oil (2-5%) infused in carrier oil (sesame, coconut, olive oil) for external application to painful joints and muscles. NEVER ingest medicated oils

Poultice (TOPICAL ONLY): Powder mixed with hot water to form paste, applied to rheumatic joints or areas of neuralgia. Duration: 15-30 minutes. NEVER use internally

Traditional Ayurvedic Formulas: Nutmeg is a component of several classical Ayurvedic preparations including Jatiphaladi Churna (for digestive disorders and childhood diarrhea) where it is combined with other spices in specific proportions under traditional formulation guidelines.

Dosage

Culinary Use (SAFEST): A small pinch of freshly grated nutmeg (50-200 mg) added to food or warm milk, once or twice daily

Topical Oil (External use only): Apply nutmeg-infused oil or diluted essential oil (2-5% dilution) to affected areas 2-3 times daily. Do not apply to broken skin or large surface areas

Duration: For digestive support, nutmeg can be used regularly in small culinary amounts as part of food preparation. For acute digestive upset, use for 1-3 days only. NEVER use large doses for extended periods.

Safety & Drug Interactions

Scientific Evidence

Acute Nutmeg Intoxication and Toxicity: Multiple case reports and poison center data (Stein et al., 2001; Demetriades et al., 2005) document severe nutmeg poisoning following recreational abuse or accidental overdose. Symptoms include prolonged hallucinations, anticholinergic effects, tachycardia, agitation, and in severe cases, seizures and liver damage. One documented fatal case occurred. Recovery typically occurs within 24-48 hours but may take several days. The psychoactive effects do not correspond with amphetamine metabolite detection in urine, suggesting mechanisms remain incompletely understood.

Metabolism and Detection of Toxic Compounds: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry studies (Beyer et al., 2006) in rats and humans following nutmeg abuse identified multiple metabolites of myristicin, elemicin, and safrole in urine, including hydroxylated and demethylated forms. Notably, amphetamine derivatives (MMDA, TMA) could NOT be detected, despite earlier theories proposing these as the mechanism of psychoactivity. This suggests the toxic and psychoactive effects occur through other mechanisms, possibly direct effects of parent compounds or other metabolites.

Carcinogenic Potential of Safrole: Animal studies and toxicological evaluations (EFSA, 2023; NTP studies) classify safrole as a carcinogen (category 1B) based on hepatocellular adenomas and carcinomas in rodents. While human carcinogenicity has not been definitively proven, safrole-DNA adduct formation occurs, and regulatory agencies recommend minimizing exposure. This has led to restrictions on safrole content in foods and flavoring products.

Antimicrobial Activity: Multiple studies (Narasimhan & Dhake, 2006; Chung et al., 2006) have demonstrated significant antimicrobial activity of nutmeg extracts, essential oils, and isolated compounds (particularly macelignan) against various bacterial and fungal pathogens. Macelignan shows potent activity against Streptococcus mutans, the primary bacteria responsible for dental caries, supporting traditional use for oral health. The essential oil demonstrates broad-spectrum activity against Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Candida albicans, and food-borne pathogens.

Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Effects: Research studies (Zhang et al., 2015; Olajide et al., 1999) confirm anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of nutmeg extracts in animal models. The essential oil inhibits prostaglandin synthesis and reduces inflammatory responses in arthritis models. Topical application provides pain relief in models of acute and chronic pain. These effects support traditional use for rheumatism and joint pain, though human clinical trials are lacking.

Digestive and Carminative Effects: Animal studies (Grover et al., 2002) demonstrate antidiarrheal, antispasmodic, and digestive-stimulating properties of nutmeg extracts at appropriate doses, validating traditional use. The mechanisms involve smooth muscle relaxation, reduced intestinal motility in diarrhea models, and enhanced digestive enzyme activity. These effects occur at doses far below toxic levels.

Antioxidant Activity: Laboratory studies confirm significant free radical scavenging and antioxidant capacity of nutmeg extracts and essential oil components, particularly sabinene and lignans. These effects may contribute to protective effects observed in various disease models, though clinical applications remain investigational.

Neuroprotective Potential (Investigational): Animal research suggests myristicin may inhibit acetylcholinesterase and provide neuroprotective effects in Alzheimer’s disease models, potentially improving memory and cognition. However, the extremely narrow therapeutic window and serious toxicity risks make any clinical application unacceptably dangerous without extensive further research and medical supervision.

Western Energetics

Temperature: Warming/Hot. Nutmeg has a pronounced warming energetic quality, making it particularly suited for “cold” conditions in traditional medicine systems. It warms the digestive system, increases circulation, and is contraindicated in “hot” inflammatory conditions.

Moisture: Drying. The astringent tannins and volatile oils have a drying quality that helps absorb excess moisture, making nutmeg useful for damp diarrhea, excessive mucus production, and “damp cold” digestive conditions. This drying quality is balanced by the demulcent fixed oils.

Tissue State: Primarily indicated for:

Atonic/Deficient (Cold, Weak): Nutmeg excels at warming and stimulating weak, cold, sluggish digestion characterised by poor appetite, slow transit, gas accumulation, and lack of digestive fire

Damp/Congestive (Cold-Damp): The warming, drying, aromatic quality helps clear cold, damp stagnation particularly in the digestive and respiratory systems (though respiratory use is less emphasised)

Taste

Pungent: The dominant warming, spicy, aromatic taste from volatile oils (sabinene, pinenes, myristicin) indicates nutmeg’s heating, stimulating, dispersing qualities. The pungent taste relates to its carminative action, ability to expel gas, move stagnation, and warm cold conditions. This pungency stimulates digestive secretions and increases metabolic fire.

Bitter: A subtle but perceptible bitter undertone from phenolic compounds supports nutmeg’s digestive-stimulating and slightly detoxifying properties. The bitter taste triggers digestive enzyme and bile secretion, complementing the pungent carminative action.

Sweet: A mild sweetness from fixed oils and starches indicates nutmeg’s nutritive quality and slightly building, strengthening nature (when used appropriately in small amounts). This sweet aspect balances the more dispersing pungent qualities and relates to nutmeg’s traditional use as a tonic in combination formulas.

Astringent (Mild): A gentle drying, binding sensation from tannins relates to nutmeg’s traditional use for diarrhea and its ability to “dry dampness” and tighten lax tissues.

Plant Lore

Nutmeg has one of the most dramatic and violent histories of any spice, involving warfare, monopolies, colonialism, and immense fortunes. Native exclusively to the tiny Banda Islands in the Moluccas (Spice Islands) of Indonesia, nutmeg was one of the world’s most valuable commodities for centuries.

Arab traders controlled the nutmeg trade for over a thousand years, fiercely guarding the secret of its geographic origin from European buyers. Nutmeg reached Europe via the Silk Road and became extraordinarily expensive–worth more than its weight in gold. During medieval times, a few nutmegs could buy a house, and the spice was accessible only to the wealthy. It was believed to ward off the plague during the Black Death, and wealthy Europeans carried personal nutmeg graters (often made of silver) as status symbols and portable medicine.

In 1511, Portuguese explorers reached the Spice Islands and broke the Arab monopoly, though they never fully controlled the trade. In 1621, the Dutch East India Company seized the Banda Islands in one of history’s most brutal colonial conquests. The Dutch massacred, enslaved, or expelled the entire indigenous Bandanese population (reducing the population from approximately 15,000 to fewer than 1,000) and established a complete monopoly on nutmeg production. To maintain their monopoly, the Dutch treated nutmegs with lime before export to prevent them from germinating elsewhere, ensuring no one could cultivate the trees outside Dutch-controlled territory. They also enforced draconian penalties, including death, for smuggling nutmeg seedlings.

The Dutch nutmeg monopoly generated vast wealth for over 150 years. However, in 1770, French botanist Pierre Poivre successfully smuggled nutmeg seedlings to Mauritius, and later the British transplanted trees to Penang, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and Grenada. By the early 19th century, the Dutch monopoly collapsed, and nutmeg cultivation spread throughout tropical regions, dramatically reducing prices.

In Elizabethan England, nutmeg was believed to ward off plague and bad spirits. It featured prominently in pomanders–aromatic balls stuffed with spices worn around the neck to ward off disease and mask unpleasant odors. The spice appeared in numerous medicinal preparations and was considered a cure-all for digestive, respiratory, and nervous complaints.

In traditional Ayurvedic and Unani medicine, nutmeg (Jatiphala) has been used for thousands of years as a warming digestive tonic, aphrodisiac, and treatment for diarrhea, insomnia, and nervous disorders. It appears in numerous classical formulations and remains important in modern Ayurvedic practice.

Nutmeg’s psychoactive potential has been known for centuries, with historical accounts of prisoners and sailors using it as an intoxicant when other substances were unavailable. Malcolm X famously described nutmeg intoxication during his imprisonment in his autobiography. In modern times, nutmeg abuse occurs periodically among adolescents seeking “legal highs,” consistently resulting in emergency room visits, severe distress, and medical complications.

The saying “a pinch is medicine, a spoonful is poison” perfectly encapsulates nutmeg’s paradoxical nature–extraordinarily valuable as a culinary spice and digestive aid in small amounts, yet potentially deadly at higher doses.

Additional Information

Mace vs. Nutmeg: Mace, the red lacy aril surrounding the nutmeg seed, is a separate spice with a similar but more delicate flavor profile and somewhat milder chemistry. Mace contains similar compounds but generally in lower concentrations, making it slightly less potent medicinally and slightly safer (though the same caution applies).

Nutmeg Butter/Fixed Oil: The expressed fixed oil (trimyristin-rich) from nutmeg seeds is sometimes used topically in traditional medicine and cosmetics. It has a solid, butter-like consistency at room temperature and is distinct from the volatile essential oil.

Quality and Storage: Whole nutmeg seeds retain potency much longer than ground powder. Purchase whole nutmegs and grate fresh as needed for best flavor and medicinal properties. Store in airtight containers away from heat and light. Ground nutmeg loses volatile oils rapidly and may be adulterated.

Ayurvedic Context: In Ayurveda, nutmeg balances Vata (air/space element) and Kapha (water/earth element) doshas while potentially aggravating Pitta (fire element) if used in excess. It is considered warming, light, penetrating, and drying. Traditional Ayurvedic use emphasizes very small amounts (often just a pinch) in warm milk before bed for insomnia, or in digestive formulas.

Nutmeg and Milk: The traditional combination of a tiny pinch of nutmeg in warm milk (sometimes with honey) before bedtime is used in Ayurveda and folk medicine to promote restful sleep and calm digestion. The fat in milk helps dissolve and deliver volatile oils while the fixed oils in nutmeg add demulcent properties.

Paracelsus’s Principle: Nutmeg is the perfect illustration of the famous alchemist Paracelsus’s principle: “The dose makes the poison.” In culinary amounts, it is a pleasant, warming digestive aid. In excess, it becomes a dangerous toxin and deliriant.

Aotearoa New Zealand Context: Nutmeg cannot be grown in New Zealand’s temperate climate as it requires consistently warm tropical conditions. All nutmeg in NZ is imported, primarily from Indonesia, Grenada, and India. Whole nutmegs and ground nutmeg are readily available in supermarkets and spice shops. Typical retail price: for ground nutmeg, for whole nutmegs. New Zealand Poison Control should be contacted immediately at 0800 POISON (0800 764 766) if nutmeg poisoning is suspected.

Sources

Beyer, J., Ehlers, D., & Maurer, H. H. (2006). Abuse of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.): Studies on the metabolism and the toxicologic detection of its ingredients elemicin, myristicin, and safrole in rat and human urine using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, 28(4), 568-575.

Chung, J. Y., Choo, J. H., Lee, M. H., & Hwang, J. K. (2006). Anticariogenic activity of macelignan isolated from Myristica fragrans (nutmeg) against Streptococcus mutans. Phytomedicine, 13(4), 261-266.

Demetriades, A. K., Wallman, P. D., McGuiness, A., & Gavalas, M. C. (2005). Low cost, high risk: Accidental nutmeg intoxication. Emergency Medicine Journal, 22(3), 223-225.

EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP). (2023). Safety and efficacy of a feed additive consisting of an essential oil from the seeds of Myristica fragrans Houtt. (nutmeg oil) for all animal species. EFSA Journal, 21(6), 8066.

Grover, J. K., Khandkar, S., Vats, V., Dhunnoo, Y., & Das, D. (2002). Pharmacological studies on Myristica fragrans–antidiarrheal, hypnotic, analgesic and hemodynamic (blood pressure) parameters. Methods and Findings in Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, 24(10), 675-680.

Gupta, A. D., Bansal, V. K., Babu, V., & Maithil, N. (2013). Chemistry, antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.). Journal of Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology, 11(1), 25-31.

Hallström, H., & Thuvander, A. (1997). Toxicological evaluation of myristicin. Natural Toxins, 5(5), 186-192.

Jaiswal, P., Kumar, P., Singh, V. K., & Singh, D. K. (2009). Biological effects of Myristica fragrans. Annual Review of Biomedical Sciences, 11, 21-29.

Narasimhan, B., & Dhake, A. S. (2006). Antibacterial principles from Myristica fragrans seeds. Journal of Medicinal Food, 9(3), 395-399.

National Toxicology Program (NTP). (2021). Toxicity Studies of Myristicin (CASRN 607-91-0) Administered by Gavage to F344/NTac Rats and B6C3F1/N Mice. NTP Technical Report Series. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Olajide, O. A., Ajayi, F. F., Ekhelar, A. I., Awe, S. O., Makinde, J. M., & Alada, A. R. (1999). Biological effects of Myristica fragrans (nutmeg) extract. Phytotherapy Research, 13(4), 344-345.

Stein, U., Greyer, H., & Hentschel, H. (2001). Nutmeg (myristicin) poisoning–report on a fatal case and a series of cases recorded by a poison information centre. Forensic Science International, 118(1), 87-90.

van Wyk, B.-E., & Wink, M. (2017). Medicinal Plants of the World (2nd ed.). CABI.

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Zhang, C. R., Dissanayake, A. A., Kevsero lu, R., Nair, M. G., Strasburg, G. M., & Wittenberg, K. M. (2015). Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of the extracts from the seeds of Myristica fragrans. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 9(45), 1018-1025.

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