Myrrh

Commiphora myrrha

Common & Folk Names

• Myrrh Gum
• Gum Myrrh
• Hirabol Myrrh
• Somali Myrrh
• Arabian Myrrh
• Bitter Myrrh

Plant Family

Burseraceae

Geographic Location

Native to northeastern Africa, particularly Somalia, Ethiopia, and Kenya, and the Arabian Peninsula, including Yemen and Oman. Also found in Sudan and parts of the Middle East. The tree grows in hot, arid regions with minimal rainfall. Most commercial myrrh comes from Somalia, though harvesting practices and regional instability affect supply.

Habitat

Grows in dry, rocky, desert, and semi-desert regions with sparse vegetation. Tolerates extremely harsh conditions including high temperatures, intense sunlight, and prolonged drought. Found on rocky hillsides, limestone outcrops, and in scrubland at elevations from sea level to 1,800 metres. The tree’s adaptation to arid environments includes a twisted, gnarled growth form and the ability to shed leaves during extreme drought.

Growing Conditions

Sun: Full sun; requires intense sunlight and thrives in hot, arid conditions

Soil: Extremely well-draining, rocky, or sandy soil; tolerates poor, alkaline soils; pH 7.0-8.5; drought-tolerant once established; sensitive to overwatering

Propagation: Propagate from fresh seed (difficult; germination is erratic); semi-hardwood cuttings with bottom heat; grafting onto rootstock

Care: Minimal water requirements; water sparingly and allow soil to dry completely between waterings; avoid fertiliser; protect from frost; requires hot, dry conditions; difficult to cultivate outside native range

NZ Planting Calendar

Sowing (seed): Not practical in NZ climate; seeds require very specific conditions and fresh seed is rarely available

Propagation (cuttings/division): Semi-hardwood cuttings in summer (December-February) with bottom heat; success rate is low; grafting may be attempted by experienced growers

Planting: Spring (October-November) in warmest, driest locations only

Growth: Tender perennial tree/shrub; extremely frost-sensitive; requires greenhouse or conservatory cultivation in NZ

Flowering: Rarely flowers in cultivation outside native range; small, inconspicuous reddish flowers in clusters

Harvest: Resin harvested by making incisions in bark, allowing gum-resin to exude and harden; not practical for home cultivation in NZ

Note: Not native to NZ; cannot be grown outdoors in NZ climate; requires hot, arid conditions not available in NZ; extremely difficult to cultivate; may be attempted in heated glasshouse by experienced growers but success is unlikely; commercial myrrh resin is imported; NZ growers should purchase dried resin rather than attempting cultivation

Harvesting Guidelines

Myrrh resin is harvested by making incisions in the bark of the tree trunk and branches during the dry season. The tree exudes a pale yellow, oily resin that hardens upon exposure to air, turning reddish-brown to dark brown. The hardened resin tears (irregular pieces) are collected after several days to weeks of drying. The highest quality myrrh consists of clear, reddish-brown tears with a pleasant, balsamic aroma. Lower grades may include bark fragments and darker, less aromatic pieces. Sustainable harvesting involves careful incision techniques that don’t severely damage the tree, allowing it to recover and continue producing resin. Overharvesting and unsustainable practices in some regions threaten wild populations. Purchase myrrh from ethical, sustainable sources when possible. The resin is used as-is or can be powdered for various preparations.

Parts Used

• Oleo-gum-resin (dried, hardened exudate from the bark)
• Occasionally essential oil (steam-distilled from the resin)

Constituents & their Actions

Myrrh resin is a complex mixture of volatile oils, gum, and resin components that contribute to its therapeutic properties. The combination of these constituents provides antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, astringent, and wound-healing effects.

Volatile Oils (Essential Oil Fraction):

Comprising 3-8% of the resin, the volatile oil contains numerous aromatic compounds. Some of the main volatile oil components in myrrh are:

• Furanoeudesma-1,3-diene
• Curzerene
• Lindestrene
• β-Elemene
• α-Copaene
• Cadinenes

The main actions of these volatile oils are:

• Provide antimicrobial effects against bacteria, fungi, and parasites
• Exhibit anti-inflammatory properties
• Contribute to the characteristic aroma
• Support immune system function
• Provide mild analgesic effects

Resin (40-60% of total):

The resin fraction contains various compounds including triterpenes and steroids. Some of the main resin components in myrrh are:

• Commiphoric acids
• Commiphorinic acid
• Heerabomyrrhols
• α-Amyrin
• β-Amyrin

The main actions of these resin components are:

• Provide anti-inflammatory effects through multiple pathways
• Exhibit antimicrobial properties
• Support wound healing and tissue repair
• Demonstrate potential anticancer activity in laboratory studies
• Contribute to astringent effects

Gum (30-60% of total):

The water-soluble gum fraction contains polysaccharides and proteins.

The main actions of the gum fraction are:

• Provide demulcent properties that soothe mucous membranes
• Support the formation of protective barriers over damaged tissue
• Contribute to wound-healing effects
• Facilitate the resin’s ability to adhere to tissues

Triterpenes and Sesquiterpenes:

Complex organic compounds with various physiological effects. Some of the main triterpenes and sesquiterpenes in myrrh are:

• Commiphora acid
• Myrrholic acids
• Various sesquiterpene alcohols and ketones

The main actions of these compounds are:

• Exhibit potent anti-inflammatory effects
• Provide analgesic properties
• Support immune modulation
• Demonstrate antimicrobial activity
• May have potential anticancer properties

Actions with Mechanisms

Antimicrobial:
Multiple constituents in myrrh demonstrate broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against bacteria, fungi, and parasites. The volatile oil components disrupt microbial cell membranes and interfere with cellular metabolism, which in turn inhibits microbial growth and kills pathogens. The resin components exhibit bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects through membrane disruption and interference with protein synthesis. Research demonstrates activity against various bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and oral pathogens, as well as antifungal activity against Candida species. The antimicrobial effects make myrrh valuable for treating infections of the mouth, throat, skin, and digestive tract.

Anti-inflammatory:
Triterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and other resin components reduce inflammation through multiple mechanisms. These compounds inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory mediators including prostaglandins and leukotrienes by blocking cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) enzymes, which in turn decreases pain, swelling, redness, and heat associated with inflammation. Studies show myrrh reduces inflammatory cytokine production and modulates immune responses, preventing excessive inflammation whilst maintaining appropriate immune function. The anti-inflammatory effects prove particularly useful for inflammatory conditions of the mouth, throat, digestive system, and musculoskeletal system.

Astringent:
The resin and tannin content provides significant astringent properties that tone and tighten tissues. Myrrh binds to proteins in mucous membranes and skin, creating a protective layer whilst contracting tissues, which in turn reduces excessive secretions, stops minor bleeding, and promotes tissue integrity. This astringent action makes myrrh particularly valuable for conditions involving inflammation and excessive discharge, such as gingivitis, mouth ulcers, sore throat, and diarrhoea. The astringent effects also contribute to wound healing by drawing tissue together and reducing fluid loss.

Vulnerary (Wound Healing):
Multiple constituents work synergistically to promote wound healing. The antimicrobial properties prevent infection in wounds, whilst anti-inflammatory effects reduce swelling and create optimal conditions for healing. The resin components stimulate granulation tissue formation and epithelialisation, which in turn accelerates wound closure and tissue repair. The astringent properties help stop minor bleeding and draw wound edges together. The gum fraction creates a protective barrier over wounds whilst allowing them to breathe. Traditional use for wounds, ulcers, and skin injuries is well-supported by these mechanisms.

Expectorant:
Myrrh promotes the expulsion of mucus from the respiratory tract through several mechanisms. The volatile oils stimulate mucous membrane secretions, which in turn thins thick mucus and makes it easier to expectorate. The warming, stimulating properties increase circulation to respiratory tissues, supporting the movement of mucus and reducing congestion. This expectorant action proves valuable for coughs with thick, difficult-to-expel phlegm, chronic bronchitis, and sinus congestion. The antimicrobial effects provide additional benefits when respiratory infections are present.

Carminative:
The volatile oils provide gentle carminative effects by relaxing the smooth muscle of the digestive tract and helping to expel gas. The aromatic compounds stimulate digestive secretions and improve overall digestive function, which in turn eases bloating, cramping, and discomfort. The antimicrobial properties address potential digestive infections or dysbiosis that may contribute to gas and bloating. This action makes myrrh useful for digestive upset, flatulence, and sluggish digestion.

Immune Stimulant:
Various constituents enhance immune system function through multiple pathways. Sesquiterpenes and other compounds stimulate white blood cell activity, enhancing the body’s ability to fight infections, which in turn improves immune response to pathogens. Some research suggests myrrh may increase the production of immune cells and enhance their activity. The antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects support overall immune function by reducing infection burden and preventing excessive inflammation that could impair immunity. These properties make myrrh valuable for supporting the immune system during infections or when immune function is compromised.

Analgesic:
Myrrh provides mild to moderate pain relief through multiple mechanisms. The anti-inflammatory effects reduce pain-causing inflammation, whilst volatile oil components may directly affect pain receptors and nerve transmission. Some sesquiterpenes demonstrate analgesic properties in laboratory studies, which in turn reduces pain perception. The analgesic effects are most pronounced for inflammatory pain, dental pain, and musculoskeletal pain. Topical application provides localised pain relief for sore muscles, arthritis, and injuries.

Main Use

Myrrh is primarily used for conditions affecting the mouth, throat, and gums, where its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and astringent properties provide exceptional therapeutic benefits. The resin excels at treating gingivitis (gum inflammation), mouth ulcers, bleeding gums, sore throat, laryngitis, and pharyngitis. Myrrh tincture or mouthwash directly applied to affected tissues provides rapid relief whilst supporting healing. Dentists and dental hygienists have long recognised myrrh’s value for gum health, and it appears in many natural toothpastes and mouthwashes.

For respiratory conditions, myrrh serves as an expectorant for coughs with thick mucus, chronic bronchitis, sinusitis, and upper respiratory infections. The antimicrobial properties address bacterial or fungal respiratory infections, whilst the expectorant action helps clear congestion. The warming, stimulating nature makes myrrh particularly suitable for conditions with copious, pale mucus and a cold, damp constitution.

Topically, myrrh promotes wound healing for cuts, abrasions, ulcers, and slow-healing wounds. The antimicrobial properties prevent infection, whilst the vulnerary effects accelerate tissue repair. Traditional use includes treatment of bed sores, surgical wounds, and skin ulcers. The anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties make myrrh oil or salve valuable for arthritis, muscle aches, and inflammatory skin conditions.

Internally, myrrh addresses digestive issues including sluggish digestion, intestinal infections, and diarrhoea with excessive discharge. The antimicrobial effects combat intestinal pathogens, whilst astringent properties reduce excessive secretions. The carminative action relieves gas and bloating.

Myrrh’s immune-stimulating properties provide support during infections or when immune function needs enhancement. The resin has been valued for thousands of years across multiple medical traditions, and modern research continues to validate many traditional uses whilst revealing new therapeutic applications.

Preparations

Tincture (1:5, 90-95% alcohol): High alcohol content is essential to extract the resin components; standard preparation using powdered or crushed resin. The tincture can be used internally in small doses or diluted for mouthwash.

Mouthwash/Gargle: Dilute myrrh tincture in water (5-10 drops per 30ml water, or up to 1:5 dilution) for mouthwash or gargle. Use 2-4 times daily for gum disease, mouth ulcers, or sore throat. Do not swallow concentrated tincture.

Powder: Finely powdered myrrh can be applied directly to gums or wounds, though the taste is very bitter and astringent. More commonly mixed with other herbs in tooth powders.

Infused Oil: Myrrh resin can be infused in oil for topical applications, though the resin components are more soluble in alcohol. Gentle heat helps extraction. Use for massage oil or in salve preparation for wound healing and pain relief.

Essential Oil: Steam-distilled essential oil of myrrh is available commercially and can be used in dilution (2-3% in carrier oil) for topical applications. More expensive than tincture but highly concentrated.

Capsules: Powdered myrrh in capsules for internal use; commercially available standardised products provide consistent dosing.

Steam Inhalation: Add a few drops of myrrh tincture or essential oil to hot water and inhale the steam for respiratory congestion and sinus infections.

Dosage

Tincture (1:5, 90-95% alcohol): 1-4ml (20-80 drops), 2-3 times daily for internal use; for mouthwash, dilute 5-10 drops in 30ml water, use 2-4 times daily

Powdered Resin (capsules): 1-4g daily in divided doses

Essential Oil (topical, diluted): 2-3% dilution in carrier oil; apply to affected area 2-3 times daily

Mouthwash/Gargle: 5-10 drops of tincture diluted in 30ml water (or 1ml tincture in 5-10ml water), swish or gargle for 30-60 seconds, 2-4 times daily; do not swallow

Topical Use (infused oil or salve): Apply to affected area 2-3 times daily as needed

Note: Myrrh has a very bitter, astringent taste that some find unpleasant. Tincture can be taken in a small amount of water or juice if used internally.

Safety & Drug Interactions

Scientific Evidence

Antimicrobial Activity: Extensive laboratory research demonstrates myrrh’s broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties. Studies confirm activity against various bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and oral pathogens responsible for dental infections. Antifungal activity against Candida albicans and other fungal species is well-documented. Some research shows activity against parasites including Schistosoma species and Fasciola hepatica. The antimicrobial mechanisms involve membrane disruption and interference with microbial metabolism.

Anti-inflammatory Effects: Animal and laboratory studies support significant anti-inflammatory activity. Research demonstrates inhibition of COX-2 and 5-LOX enzymes, reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines, and decreased inflammatory markers. Studies show effectiveness for reducing inflammation in various models, including oral inflammation, arthritis, and digestive inflammation. The anti-inflammatory mechanisms are well-characterised and support traditional uses.

Oral Health: Limited clinical research supports traditional use for gingivitis and periodontal disease. Studies show myrrh-containing mouthwashes reduce plaque, gingivitis, and oral bacteria. The antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties provide logical support for dental applications, though more rigorous clinical trials are needed. Dentists and herbalists report clinical success with myrrh for gum disease and oral ulcers.

Wound Healing: Animal studies demonstrate accelerated wound healing with myrrh application. Research shows increased granulation tissue formation, enhanced re-epithelialisation, and reduced healing time. The antimicrobial properties prevent wound infection whilst anti-inflammatory effects create optimal healing conditions. Traditional use for wounds and ulcers is supported by these findings.

Analgesic Properties: Laboratory studies confirm analgesic effects in animal models. Research demonstrates pain reduction in various pain models, supporting traditional use for pain relief. The mechanisms involve both anti-inflammatory effects and potential direct effects on pain pathways.

Western Energetics

Temperature: Warming. Myrrh’s warming nature is evident in its stimulating effects on circulation, its ability to move stagnation, and its traditional use for cold, damp conditions. The resin warms tissues, increases blood flow, and addresses conditions characterised by coldness, pallor, and sluggishness.

Moisture: Drying. The astringent properties and drying quality make myrrh particularly suitable for damp, boggy conditions with excessive secretions or discharges. It reduces excessive mucus, tightens lax tissues, and addresses conditions with fluid accumulation or weeping. The drying nature is pronounced and is one of myrrh’s defining energetic qualities.

Tissue State: Particularly indicated for atonic conditions where tissues are lax, boggy, and lacking tone, with excessive secretions and poor circulation. Myrrh tones and tightens tissues, reduces discharges, and stimulates sluggish systems. Also valuable for damp, stagnant conditions with poor circulation, copious pale secretions, and lack of vitality. The warming, drying, astringent, and stimulating properties address the underlying tissue state whilst supporting healing and restoration of healthy tissue tone.

Taste

Bitter: The dominant bitter taste is intense and characteristic of myrrh. Bitterness stimulates digestive secretions, contributes to antimicrobial effects, and reflects the presence of complex medicinal compounds. The bitter quality supports myrrh’s use as a digestive stimulant and antimicrobial agent, though it can make internal use challenging due to the unpleasant taste.

Astringent: A pronounced astringent quality creates a puckering, drying sensation in the mouth. This astringency reflects the tannin and resin content and contributes directly to myrrh’s tissue-toning, secretion-reducing, and wound-healing effects. The astringent taste is one of myrrh’s defining characteristics.

Aromatic/Pungent: Underlying the bitter and astringent qualities is a complex aromatic character with hints of balsamic sweetness and pungency. This aromatic quality derives from the volatile oils and contributes to myrrh’s warming, stimulating, and expectorant properties. The aroma is considered pleasant by many, despite the bitter taste.

Plant Lore

Myrrh holds a place of extraordinary significance in human history, spirituality, and medicine spanning over 5,000 years. The resin appears in some of humanity’s oldest written records, including ancient Egyptian papyri, Sumerian texts, and biblical scriptures, testifying to its profound importance across cultures and millennia.

In ancient Egypt, myrrh was among the most precious substances, used in mummification to preserve bodies for the afterlife. The antimicrobial and preservative properties made it essential for embalming, whilst its pleasant aroma masked the odours of death. Egyptian priests burned myrrh as incense in temple rituals, believing it pleased the gods and facilitated communication with the divine. The resin was also used in perfumes, cosmetics, and medicines, with ancient Egyptian medical texts documenting its use for treating wounds, digestive ailments, and respiratory conditions.

In the Bible, myrrh appears repeatedly as a substance of great value and spiritual significance. The Three Wise Men brought myrrh, along with gold and frankincense, as gifts to the infant Jesus, symbolising his future suffering and death (as myrrh was used in burial preparations). Myrrh was used to anoint Hebrew kings and priests, appearing in the holy anointing oil formula given to Moses. The resin was offered to Jesus on the cross mixed with wine (as a mild analgesic), and was used to prepare his body for burial.

Ancient Greek and Roman physicians including Hippocrates, Dioscorides, and Galen documented myrrh’s medicinal uses extensively. They prescribed it for wounds, ulcers, respiratory conditions, digestive complaints, and as an antiseptic. Roman soldiers carried myrrh in their medical kits for treating battle wounds.

In traditional Chinese medicine, myrrh (mo yao) has been used for over 2,000 years, primarily for moving blood, reducing swelling, and relieving pain. TCM considers myrrh specific for traumatic injuries, arthritis, and conditions involving blood stagnation.

In Ayurvedic medicine, myrrh (bola) is valued for its purifying, rejuvenating, and wound-healing properties. It is considered particularly beneficial for the female reproductive system and is used in various traditional formulations.

The word “myrrh” derives from the Arabic “murr” meaning “bitter,” referring to the resin’s intensely bitter taste. In ancient times, myrrh was worth its weight in gold and was a major commodity in spice trade routes connecting Africa, Arabia, and the Mediterranean world. Cities and empires rose and fell in part due to control of myrrh trade.

The connection between myrrh, mortality, and the sacred appears across multiple traditions. Its use in burial rites, its association with suffering, and its precious nature made it a substance linking the earthly and divine, the living and the dead. Yet simultaneously, its powerful healing properties made it a preserver of life, preventing infection and promoting recovery from injury.

Myrrh trees in their native regions are scraggly, twisted, and tough—surviving in harsh desert conditions where few other plants can grow. This resilience and ability to produce precious medicine from such austere circumstances contributed to myrrh’s symbolic associations with endurance, transformation, and the extraction of beauty and healing from adversity.

Additional Information

The sustainability of myrrh harvesting is a growing concern. Overharvesting, particularly in Somalia where civil unrest has led to uncontrolled exploitation, threatens wild populations. Climate change and habitat degradation further pressure myrrh trees. When purchasing myrrh, seek suppliers committed to sustainable, ethical sourcing practices. Some companies work directly with harvesters to ensure fair compensation and sustainable collection methods.

Several Commiphora species produce resins called myrrh, but Commiphora myrrha (also known as C. molmol) is considered true myrrh and is the species with the most extensive traditional use and research. Other species including C. mukul (guggul), C. wightii, and C. erythraea have related but distinct properties and uses. When purchasing, ensure the product specifies the species or is labelled as true myrrh.

Quality of myrrh resin varies considerably. The finest myrrh consists of clear, reddish-brown tears with a pleasant, balsamic aroma and minimal bark or debris. Lower grades may be darker, include more bark fragments, and have less appealing aromas. When purchasing resin, look for clean tears with good colour and aroma. Powdered myrrh loses potency more quickly than whole resin tears; store in airtight containers away from light and heat.

Making myrrh tincture at home requires very high-proof alcohol (90-95%) to properly extract the resin components. Standard 40% vodka is insufficient. Everclear or other high-proof spirits work well. Grind or crush the resin before tincturing, and shake daily for several weeks. The resulting tincture should be deeply coloured and aromatic.

For mouthwash use, myrrh combines beautifully with other antimicrobial and astringent herbs:

• Myrrh + Sage for gum disease and throat infections
• Myrrh + Calendula for mouth ulcers
• Myrrh + Echinacea for immune support during oral infections
• Myrrh + Liquorice for soothing inflamed tissues (balances the drying nature)

The intense bitterness of myrrh makes it challenging for some people to use internally. Capsules avoid the taste issue, whilst tincture can be heavily diluted in water or juice (though the taste remains present). The mouthwash application, where the tincture is diluted and not swallowed, avoids the taste challenge whilst providing direct benefits to oral tissues.

Myrrh incense, made by burning the resin on charcoal, has been used for millennia in spiritual and religious practices. The aromatic smoke creates a meditative atmosphere and the antimicrobial properties may help purify air. This use is distinct from medicinal applications but reflects myrrh’s multifaceted cultural and spiritual significance.

The essential oil of myrrh, whilst expensive, provides a concentrated form for aromatherapy and topical applications. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, lavender, and other essential oils. For topical use, always dilute properly in carrier oil (2-3% dilution is standard).

Storage of myrrh resin is straightforward—the resin is stable and can last for years when kept dry and away from extreme heat. Unlike many herbs that degrade quickly, myrrh’s preservative and antimicrobial properties help protect it from deterioration.

Sources

Bone, K., & Mills, S. (2013). Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine (2nd ed.). Churchill Livingstone.

Hoffman, D. (2003). Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Healing Arts Press.

Mills, S., & Bone, K. (2005). The Essential Guide to Herbal Safety. Elsevier.

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Su, S., Wang, T., Duan, J. A., Zhou, W., Hua, Y. Q., Tang, Y. P., Yu, L., & Qian, D. W. (2011). Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of different extracts of Commiphora myrrha. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 134(2), 251-258.

Tipton, D. A., Hamman, N. R., & Dabbous, M. K. (2006). Effect of myrrh oil on IL-1β stimulation of NF-κB activation and PGE2 production in human gingival fibroblasts and epithelial cells. Toxicology in Vitro, 20(3), 248-255.

Massoud, A., El Sisi, S., Salama, O., & Massoud, A. (2001). Preliminary study of therapeutic efficacy of a new fasciolicidal drug derived from Commiphora molmol (myrrh). American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 65(2), 96-99.

Haffor, A. S. (2010). Effect of myrrh (Commiphora molmol) on leukocyte levels before and during healing from gastric ulcer or skin injury. Journal of Immunotoxicology, 7(1), 68-75.

Shalaby, M. A., & Hammouda, A. A. (2014). Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-hyperlipidemic activities of Commiphora molmol extract (Myrrh). Journal of Intercultural Ethnopharmacology, 3(2), 56-62.

Al-Harbi, M. M., Qureshi, S., Raza, M., Ahmed, M. M., Afzal, M., & Shah, A. H. (1997). Gastric antiulcer and cytoprotective effect of Commiphora molmol in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 55(2), 141-150.

Ashry, K. M., El-Sayed, Y. S., Khamiss, R. M., & El-Ashmawy, I. M. (2010). Oxidative stress and immunotoxic effects of lead and their amelioration with myrrh (Commiphora molmol) emulsion. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 48(1), 236-241.

Maconochie, J., & Ramsay, D. (2007). A review of the traditional uses of myrrh. British Journal of Phytotherapy, 4(3), 96-102.

Ammon, H. P. (2016). Modulation of the immune system by Boswellia serrata extracts and boswellic acids. Phytomedicine, 23(12), 1397-1411. [Note: While this source focuses on frankincense, it provides context for related Burseraceae species including myrrh]