The Public Herbarium

Kānuka (Kunzea sinclairii) leaves and flowers

Understanding the Science and Mechanisms Behind Herbal Actions

This comprehensive guide explores herbal terminology from a scientific perspective, examining the mechanisms behind each action category, the phytochemical constituents responsible, and the evidence supporting traditional classifications.

Table of Contents

  1. Understanding Herbal Actions: The Framework
  2. Digestive System Actions
  3. Respiratory System Actions
  4. Nervous System Actions
  5. Circulatory & Lymphatic Actions
  6. Immune System Actions
  7. Tissue & Wound Healing Actions
  8. Musculoskeletal & Pain Relief Actions
  9. Hormonal & Reproductive Actions
  10. Urinary System Actions
  11. Tonic & Nutritive Actions
  12. Organoleptic Properties & Their Significance
  13. Combining Actions: Synergy in Formulation

Understanding Herbal Actions: The Framework

What Are Herbal Actions?

Herbal actions describe the physiological effects herbs have on the body. Unlike pharmaceutical drugs that typically have single, isolated mechanisms, herbs contain hundreds of compounds working synergistically, often producing multiple actions simultaneously.

The Importance of Accurate Terminology

Precise terminology serves several functions:

  1. Clinical Communication: Allows practitioners to communicate effectively about therapeutic strategies
  2. Pattern Recognition: Helps identify appropriate herbs for specific conditions
  3. Safety: Enables proper contraindication screening
  4. Research Translation: Bridges traditional use with modern scientific understanding

How Actions Are Determined

Herbal actions are established through:

Traditional Use (Empirical Observation):

  • Centuries of documented use across cultures
  • Consistent patterns of application
  • Recorded outcomes in traditional texts

Phytochemical Analysis:

  • Identification of bioactive compounds
  • Understanding compound classes and their typical effects
  • Correlation between constituents and observed actions

Pharmacological Research:

  • In vitro (test tube) studies on isolated compounds
  • In vivo (animal) studies on whole plant extracts
  • Clinical trials in human subjects
  • Mechanism-of-action studies

Why This Matters: Not all traditional actions have been scientifically validated, but the absence of research doesn’t mean absence of efficacy—it often means absence of funding. Traditional knowledge represents millions of human “trials” over millennia.

A Note for NZ Readers

This guide explores Western herbalism terminology from a scientific perspective – the phytochemistry, mechanisms, and research behind traditional herbal classifications.

Rongoā Māori: Traditional Māori healing has its own sophisticated classification systems, diagnostic approaches, and therapeutic frameworks that differ from Western herbalism. Rongoā Māori represents centuries of indigenous knowledge with qualified practitioners (tohunga). If you’re interested in traditional Māori plant medicine, please seek guidance from qualified rongoā practitioners.

Where you’ll encounter this terminology in NZ:

  • Professional herbal medicine texts and courses
  • NZ Herbalists Association resources and professional publications
  • Research from Otago University’s Department of Pharmacology
  • Product formulations from NZ herbal companies (Artemis, Kiwiherb, Go Native)
  • International herbal pharmacopoeias used in NZ practice
  • Health food stores (Commonsense Organics, Bin Inn, pharmacies)

NZ Herbal Education:

This guide provides the scientific foundation for understanding Western herbal classifications, complementing traditional knowledge systems without replacing them.

Digestive System Actions

Carminative: The Science of Gas Relief

Plain Language: Relieves intestinal gas and bloating

Mechanism of Action:

Carminative herbs work through multiple pathways:

  1. Smooth Muscle Relaxation:
  • Volatile oils (particularly monoterpenes) block calcium channels in smooth muscle cells of the GI (Gastrointestinal) tract
  • When calcium can’t enter cells, muscles can’t contract strongly
  • Relaxed muscles allow gas to move through more easily
  • Example: Menthol in peppermint directly relaxes intestinal smooth muscle
  1. Antispasmodic Effect:
  • Reduces excessive contractions that trap gas
  • Helps coordinate peristalsis (wave-like muscle movements)
  1. Lower Oesophageal Sphincter (LES) Relaxation:
  • Allows trapped gas to escape via belching
  • Important note: Can worsen GERD in some people for this reason
  1. Anti-foaming Action:
  • Some volatile oils reduce surface tension of gas bubbles
  • Helps large bubbles break into smaller ones that are easier to expel

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Volatile Oils (Monoterpenes):

  • Menthol, menthone (peppermint)
  • Carvone (fennel, caraway)
  • Anethole (fennel, anise)
  • Limonene (citrus peels)
  • Eugenol (basil, cloves)

Why Volatile Oils Work:

  • Lipophilic (fat-loving) compounds easily cross cell membranes
  • Interact directly with ion channels in smooth muscle
  • Rapid onset of action (minutes)

Research Evidence:

Strong Evidence:

  • Peppermint oil for IBS: Multiple RCTs (Randomised Controlled Trials) show significant symptom reduction (Alammar et al., 2019)
  • Enteric-coated formulations most effective (release in intestines, not stomach)

Traditional Evidence:

  • Fennel seeds post-meal: Ancient practice across Mediterranean, Indian, and Chinese traditions
  • Consistent cross-cultural use suggests genuine efficacy

Clinical Considerations:

  • Best taken AFTER meals when gas is present
  • More effective for functional dyspepsia than organic disease
  • Warming carminatives (ginger, cinnamon) vs. cooling (peppermint, fennel)—choose based on individual constitution

Bitter: Digestive Stimulation via Taste Receptors

Plain Language: Stimulates digestive secretions through bitter taste

Mechanism of Action:

The bitter action is one of the most well-understood herbal mechanisms:

  1. Taste Receptor Activation:
  • Bitter compounds bind to TAS2R (Type 2 Taste Receptors) on tongue
  • 25 different TAS2R subtypes in humans
  • These receptors also exist throughout the GI tract (not just tongue)
  1. Vagal Nerve Stimulation:
  • Bitter taste triggers vagus nerve (10th cranial nerve)
  • Vagus nerve innervates digestive organs
  • Initiates “cephalic phase” of digestion (before food even enters stomach)
  1. Secretion Cascade:
  • Saliva: Increased production (contains digestive enzyme amylase)
  • Gastric Juice: Increased stomach acid (HCl) and pepsin production
  • Bile: Liver produces more bile; gallbladder releases stored bile
  • Pancreatic Enzymes: Increased secretion of digestive enzymes
  • Intestinal Motility: Gentle stimulation of peristalsis
  1. Hormonal Signalling:
  • Bitters stimulate release of gastrin (stomach hormone)
  • Gastrin increases gastric motility and secretion
  • Cholecystokinin (CCK) release → gallbladder contraction

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Sesquiterpene Lactones:

  • Dandelion (taraxacin)
  • Yarrow (achillein)
  • Calendula (calendulin)

Iridoid Glycosides:

  • Gentian (amarogentin—one of the most bitter compounds known)

Alkaloids:

  • Goldenseal (berberine)* (*not on focus herb list; contraindicated in pregnancy)

Why Bitterness Intensity Matters:

  • More bitter = stronger effect
  • Gentian is 10-20x more bitter than dandelion
  • Even small amounts trigger response (threshold is very low)

Research Evidence:

Strong Mechanistic Evidence:

  • TAS2R receptor distribution throughout GI tract confirmed
  • Bitter compounds increase gastric emptying rate (McMullen et al., 2015)
  • Increased bile flow measured after bitter herb consumption

Traditional Evidence:

  • Aperitif culture (European bitter liqueurs before meals)
  • Digestive bitters in traditional medicine systems worldwide
  • Consistent use for “torpid liver” and sluggish digestion

Clinical Considerations:

Timing Matters:

  • Most effective 15-30 minutes BEFORE meals
  • Activates digestive system in anticipation of food

Contraindications:

  • Active gastric ulcers (increased acid may irritate)
  • Severe GERD (Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease) (case-by-case basis)
  • Gallstones (cholagogue effect—see next section)

Why Modern Diets Lack Bitters:

  • Selective breeding removed bitterness from vegetables
  • We’ve lost taste for bitter flavours
  • This may contribute to digestive dysfunction

Cholagogue: Bile Production & Flow

Plain Language: Promotes bile production and release

Mechanism of Action:

Cholagogue herbs work on the hepatobiliary system:

  1. Hepatic Stimulation:
  • Increases bile PRODUCTION in liver hepatocytes
  • Stimulates bile acid synthesis
  • Enhances conjugation of bile salts
  1. Gallbladder Contraction:
  • Stimulates cholecystokinin (CCK) release
  • CCK causes gallbladder to contract
  • Forces stored bile into duodenum
  1. Sphincter of Oddi Relaxation:
  • Allows bile to flow from common bile duct into small intestine
  • Synchronised with gallbladder contraction

Why Bile Matters:

Bile performs critical functions:

  • Fat Emulsification: Breaks large fat globules into tiny droplets
  • Fat-Soluble Vitamin Absorption: Vitamins A, D, E, K require bile
  • Toxin Excretion: Bile is a major route for eliminating processed toxins
  • Cholesterol Regulation: Bile acids are made from cholesterol

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Sesquiterpene Lactones:

  • Dandelion root (taraxacin)

Curcuminoids:

  • Turmeric (curcumin)—increases bile production by 100%+ in studies

Cynarin:

  • Artichoke leaf (increases bile secretion)

Research Evidence:

Strong Evidence:

  • Turmeric increases bile secretion significantly (Rasyid & Lelo, 1999)
  • Artichoke extract increases bile flow (Kirchhoff et al., 1994)

Traditional Evidence:

  • Dandelion coffee tradition in Europe (roasted root)
  • Turmeric in traditional fat-heavy meals (Indian cuisine)

Clinical Considerations:

Contraindications:

  • Gallstones: Gallbladder contraction with blocked duct = severe pain
  • Bile duct obstruction: Any blockage
  • Active gallbladder disease

Therapeutic Applications:

  • Poor fat digestion
  • Fat-soluble vitamin malabsorption
  • Sluggish liver function
  • Constipation (bile stimulates intestinal motility)

Hepatic: Liver Support

Plain Language: Supports liver function

Mechanism of Action:

“Hepatic” is a broad category. Herbs support liver function through various mechanisms:

  1. Hepatoprotection:
  • Antioxidant compounds protect liver cells from damage
  • Free radical scavenging
  • Reduces oxidative stress
  • Example: Silymarin in milk thistle (not on our herb list, but classic example)
  1. Enhanced Detoxification:
  • Phase I detoxification: Cytochrome P450 enzyme support
  • Phase II detoxification: Conjugation pathway support
  • Helps liver process and eliminate toxins more efficiently
  1. Hepatocyte Regeneration:
  • Some compounds stimulate liver cell division
  • Helps replace damaged cells
  1. Anti-inflammatory:
  • Reduces liver inflammation
  • Lowers inflammatory enzyme levels (ALT, AST)

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Polyphenols:

  • Curcumin (turmeric)—powerful anti-inflammatory and antioxidant
  • Rosmarinic acid (rosemary)

Sesquiterpene Lactones:

  • Dandelion compounds

Research Evidence:

Strong Evidence:

  • Turmeric reduces liver inflammation markers (Hewlings & Kalman, 2017)
  • Dandelion shows hepatoprotective effects in animal models

Clinical Considerations:

  • “Liver detox” is oversold in popular culture
  • Liver is self-detoxifying; herbs SUPPORT, don’t “cleanse”
  • Most useful after exposure to hepatotoxins (alcohol, medications)
  • Long-term tonic use for liver health

Demulcent: Mucilaginous Protection

Plain Language: Soothes and protects irritated tissues with a gel-like coating

Mechanism of Action:

Demulcent herbs contain high amounts of mucilage—complex polysaccharides that form a soothing gel:

  1. Physical Barrier Formation:
  • Mucilage swells in water, creating viscous gel
  • Gel coats mucous membranes (mouth, throat, oesophagus, stomach, intestines)
  • Forms protective barrier between irritated tissue and irritants
  1. Reduced Contact with Irritants:
  • Protects from stomach acid (useful in GERD, gastritis)
  • Protects from harsh foods, bile
  • Reduces direct mechanical irritation
  1. Osmotic Effect:
  • Mucilage draws water to the area
  • Hydrates dry, irritated tissues
  • Maintains moisture in colon (helpful for constipation)
  1. Immune Modulation:
  • Some polysaccharides have mild immunomodulatory effects
  • Support tissue healing

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Mucilage (Polysaccharides):

  • Arabinogalactans
  • Glucuronoglycans
  • Pectins

Examples:

  • Marshmallow root (10-30% mucilage)
  • Slippery elm (high mucilage)
  • Plantain (moderate mucilage)

Why Cold Water Extraction:

  • Heat can break down some mucilage compounds
  • Cold water infusion (6-8 hours) extracts mucilage optimally
  • Hot water still works but may be less effective

Research Evidence:

Moderate Evidence:

  • Marshmallow shown to reduce cough in clinical trials
  • Plantain mucilage demonstrates anti-inflammatory effects in vitro

Strong Traditional Evidence:

  • Used for millennia for throat, digestive irritation
  • Extremely safe, well-tolerated

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Sore throat, dry cough
  • GERD, gastritis, ulcers
  • Irritable bowel syndrome
  • Constipation (with adequate water)
  • Dry mouth

Important Notes:

  • Can interfere with absorption of medications (take 1-2 hours apart)
  • Mechanism: coats GI tract, may reduce drug absorption
  • Always take with adequate water

Astringent: Tissue Toning

Plain Language: Tightens and tones tissues, reduces secretions

Mechanism of Action:

Astringent action occurs through protein precipitation:

  1. Tannin-Protein Binding:
  • Tannins bind to proteins in mucous membranes and skin
  • Creates crosslinks between protein molecules
  • Causes tissue to contract and “tighten”
  1. Vasoconstriction:
  • Constricts small blood vessels
  • Reduces bleeding from minor wounds
  • Reduces inflammation by limiting fluid leakage into tissues
  1. Reduced Secretions:
  • Tightening effect reduces excessive mucus production
  • Useful for watery diarrhoea, excessive sweating
  1. Antimicrobial Effect:
  • Tannins have mild antimicrobial properties
  • Bind to bacterial proteins, inhibiting growth

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Tannins:

  • Hydrolysable tannins (gallotannins, ellagitannins)
  • Condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins)

Examples:

  • Yarrow (achilleine, flavonoids, tannins)
  • Plantain (aucubin, tannins)
  • Calendula (calendulin, triterpenoids with mild astringency)

Why You Taste Astringency:

  • That “dry, puckering” sensation in your mouth
  • Tannins binding to saliva proteins
  • Same sensation they create on tissues throughout body

Research Evidence:

Strong Mechanistic Evidence:

  • Tannin protein-binding well-documented
  • Hemostatic (bleeding-stopping) effects confirmed

Traditional Evidence:

  • Universal use for wounds, bleeding
  • Yarrow known as “soldier’s wound wort”

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Minor bleeding (cuts, nosebleeds)
  • Diarrhoea (tones intestinal lining)
  • Weepy skin conditions (tones and dries)
  • Haemorrhoids (topical use)
  • Mouth ulcers, bleeding gums (gargle)

Cautions:

  • Excessive use can be overly drying
  • Can interfere with iron absorption (tannins bind iron)
  • Avoid with constipation (can worsen)

Respiratory System Actions

Expectorant: Mucus Mobilisation

Plain Language: Helps expel mucus from respiratory tract

Mechanism of Action:

Expectorants work through multiple pathways:

  1. Increased Respiratory Secretions:
  • Stimulate bronchial glands to produce more fluid
  • Thins thick, sticky mucus
  • Makes mucus easier to cough up
  1. Mucociliary Clearance:
  • Supports the action of cilia (tiny hairs lining airways)
  • Cilia move mucus upward toward throat
  • Enhanced ciliary beating frequency
  1. Saponin Action:
  • Plant saponins irritate gastric mucosa mildly
  • Triggers reflex increase in bronchial secretions
  • This is why many expectorants are taken internally (not inhaled)
  1. Volatile Oil Effects:
  • Direct action on bronchial mucosa when inhaled or absorbed
  • Thyme, eucalyptus oils thin secretions

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Saponins:

  • Triterpenoid saponins
  • Irritant to gastric lining → reflex expectorant action
  • Examples: Ivy leaf, mullein (small amounts)

Volatile Oils:

  • Thymol, carvacrol (thyme)
  • Eucalyptol/1,8-cineole (eucalyptus—not on list)
  • These directly stimulate mucus thinning

Mucilage:

  • Paradoxically, demulcent herbs (mullein, plantain) are also expectorants
  • Soothe irritated respiratory tract while supporting clearance

Research Evidence:

Strong Evidence:

  • Thyme extract significantly effective for acute bronchitis (Kemmerich et al., 2006)
  • Essential oils improve mucociliary clearance

Traditional Evidence:

  • Universal use across cultures for productive coughs
  • Thyme, mullein, plantain used for centuries

Clinical Considerations:

When to Use:

  • Productive (wet) cough with thick mucus
  • Bronchitis, chest congestion
  • NOT for dry cough (that needs antitussive/demulcent)

Combining Actions:

  • Often combine expectorant + antimicrobial (thyme does both)
  • Add demulcent for soothing (mullein)

Antitussive: Cough Suppression

Plain Language: Suppresses cough reflex

Mechanism of Action:

Antitussives work centrally (in brain) or peripherally (in throat):

  1. Central Action:
  • Suppresses cough center in medulla (brainstem)
  • Raises threshold for cough reflex
  • Example: Codeine (pharmaceutical example)—not used herbally
  1. Peripheral Action:
  • Demulcent herbs coat throat, reducing irritation that triggers cough
  • Local anaesthetic effect (very mild)
  • Soothes inflamed respiratory tissue

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Mucilage:

  • Marshmallow, slippery elm (not on list)
  • Coat and soothe, reducing cough triggers

Volatile Oils (Mild):

  • Some have mild local anaesthetic properties

Research Evidence:

Moderate Evidence:

  • Marshmallow reduces cough frequency in clinical studies
  • Mechanism: coating + mild anti-inflammatory effect

Clinical Considerations:

When to Use:

  • DRY, unproductive cough (no mucus to clear)
  • Cough preventing sleep
  • Cough from throat irritation (post-viral)

NOT Appropriate:

  • Productive cough (need to clear mucus)
  • Early stage infections (coughing is protective)

Nervous System Actions

Nervine: Nervous System Support

Plain Language: Supports and modulates nervous system function

Framework:

“Nervine” is a broad category with important subcategories:

  1. Nervine Relaxant (Sedative)
  2. Nervine Tonic (Restorative)
  3. Nervine Stimulant (Energising)

Nervine Relaxant: The Science of Calming

Mechanism of Action:

Nervine relaxants work through neurotransmitter modulation:

  1. GABAergic Activity:
  • GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the brain’s primary inhibitory neurotransmitter
  • It reduces neuronal excitability (calming effect)
  • Many nervines enhance GABA activity through several mechanisms: a) GABA-A Receptor Binding:
  • Compounds bind to benzodiazepine site on GABA-A receptor
  • This enhances GABA’s natural calming effect
  • Example: Apigenin in chamomile b) GABA Receptor Modulation:
  • Don’t bind directly but enhance receptor sensitivity
  • Example: Linalool in lavender and lemon balm
  1. Serotonin Modulation:
  • Some herbs affect serotonin receptors (5-HT receptors)
  • Can reduce anxiety, improve mood
  • Example: Lemon balm affects 5-HT receptors
  1. Stress Hormone Reduction:
  • Reduces cortisol (stress hormone) levels
  • Modulates HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis)
  • Breaks stress response cycle
  1. Voltage-Gated Calcium Channel Blocking:
  • Some compounds block calcium entry into neurons
  • Reduces neuronal excitability
  • Example: Linalyl acetate in lavender

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Flavonoids:

  • Apigenin (chamomile)—GABA-A receptor binding
  • Chrysin (various plants)

Volatile Oils:

  • Linalool (lavender, lemon balm)
  • Linalyl acetate (lavender)

Research Evidence:

Strong Evidence:

  • Chamomile extract reduces anxiety (GAD) symptoms in clinical trials (Mao et al., 2016)
  • Lavender oil (Silexan) shows anxiolytic effects comparable to lorazepam without sedation (Kasper et al., 2010)
  • Lemon balm reduces anxiety and improves mood (Kennedy et al., 2004)

Mechanisms Well-Established:

  • GABA-receptor binding confirmed for chamomile apigenin
  • Lavender linalool effects on GABA and voltage-gated channels documented

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Acute anxiety, stress
  • Insomnia (especially when mind won’t “turn off”)
  • Nervous tension
  • Stress-related digestive issues

Onset:

  • Can be rapid (30-60 minutes) for acute use
  • Best results with regular use over time

Safety:

  • Very safe—no addiction potential (unlike benzodiazepines)
  • Minimal next-day drowsiness
  • Safe for long-term use

Adaptogen: Stress Resilience

Plain Language: Helps body adapt to stress and maintain balance

Defining Criteria:

For an herb to be a true adaptogen, it must:

  1. Increase Non-Specific Resistance: Help body resist various stressors (physical, chemical, biological)
  2. Normalising Effect: Bring body toward homeostasis whether values are too high or too low
  3. Non-Toxic: Safe for long-term use

Mechanism of Action:

Adaptogens work on the stress response system:

  1. HPA Axis Modulation:
  • Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis is body’s stress response system
  • Adaptogens regulate cortisol secretion
  • Prevent both excess cortisol (in chronic stress) and exhaustion (in burnout)
  1. Neuroprotection:
  • Protect brain cells from stress-related damage
  • Support neurotransmitter balance
  1. Mitochondrial Support:
  • Enhance cellular energy production
  • Improve stress resistance at cellular level
  1. Immune Modulation:
  • Support immune function during stress
  • Prevent stress-induced immune suppression

Key Phytochemical Classes (Tulsi Example):

Phenolic Compounds:

  • Rosmarinic acid
  • Eugenol
  • Ursolic acid

Triterpenoids:

  • Ursolic acid (also anti-inflammatory, adaptogenic)

Research Evidence:

Tulsi (Holy Basil):

  • Reduces stress-induced biochemical changes in animal studies
  • Lowers cortisol levels
  • Improves stress resilience markers

Adaptogens Generally:

  • Well-researched in Russian/Soviet medicine
  • Mounting Western evidence

Clinical Considerations:

How to Use:

  • Take daily for 2-3 months minimum (not acute remedy)
  • Works preventively and cumulatively
  • Best for chronic stress, not acute anxiety

Applications:

  • Chronic stress
  • Burnout recovery
  • Supporting resilience during demanding periods

Circulatory & Lymphatic Actions

Lymphatic: Supporting Fluid Movement

Plain Language: Supports lymphatic system and fluid drainage

Understanding the Lymphatic System:

The lymphatic system:

  • Parallel to blood circulation but no pump (heart)
  • Moves via muscle contraction and breathing
  • Drains excess fluid from tissues
  • Transports immune cells
  • Filters waste at lymph nodes

Mechanism of Action:

Lymphatic herbs support this system through:

  1. Increased Lymph Flow:
  • Stimulate lymphatic vessel contractions
  • Enhance fluid movement through system
  • Reduce congestion and stagnation
  1. Alterative Effect:
  • Support elimination of metabolic waste
  • Enhance detoxification pathways
  • Work synergistically with liver, kidneys
  1. Anti-inflammatory:
  • Reduce swelling and inflammation
  • Support tissue healing
  • Example: Calendula’s anti-inflammatory action supports lymph drainage
  1. Immune Support:
  • Enhance immune cell trafficking
  • Support lymph node function

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Saponins:

  • Calendula (triterpenoid saponins)
  • Support lymphatic flow

Coumarins:

  • Cleavers
  • Enhance lymphatic drainage

Research Evidence:

Moderate Traditional Evidence:

  • Cleavers traditional “spring tonic” for lymphatic cleansing
  • Calendula used topically for swollen lymph nodes

Limited Clinical Research:

  • Few modern trials (lymphatic herbs are poorly funded research area)
  • Strong traditional and empirical evidence

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Swollen lymph nodes (infection, inflammation)
  • Edema (fluid retention)
  • Chronic skin conditions (acne, eczema—lymph supports elimination)
  • Post-infection recovery
  • Breast tenderness (supports lymph drainage)

How to Use:

  • Internal (tea, tincture) for systemic effect
  • Topical (compress, oil) for localised swelling
  • Often combined with liver herbs (alteratives)

Immune System Actions

Antimicrobial: Broad-Spectrum Overview

Plain Language: Fights microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi)

Important Distinction:

“Antimicrobial” is an umbrella term:

  • Antibacterial: Specifically targets bacteria
  • Antiviral: Specifically targets viruses
  • Anti-fungal: Specifically targets fungi

Many herbs have multiple antimicrobial actions.

Antibacterial: Mechanisms

How Herbs Kill or Inhibit Bacteria:

  1. Cell Membrane Disruption:
  • Volatile oils (thymol, carvacrol, eugenol) disrupt bacterial cell membranes
  • Lipophilic compounds integrate into membrane
  • Causes leakage of cellular contents → cell death
  1. Protein Denaturation:
  • Tannins and phenolic compounds bind to bacterial proteins
  • Disrupts protein function
  • Inhibits bacterial growth and reproduction
  1. Biofilm Disruption:
  • Some herbs prevent biofilm formation
  • Biofilms protect bacteria from immune system and antibiotics
  • Example: Thyme and oregano oils
  1. Quorum Sensing Inhibition:
  • Disrupts bacterial communication
  • Prevents coordinated bacterial activity (like biofilm formation)

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Volatile Oils:

  • Thymol and carvacrol (thyme, oregano)
  • Eugenol (basil, cloves)
  • Extremely effective against broad range of bacteria

Allicin:

  • Garlic (forms when garlic is crushed)
  • Broad-spectrum antibacterial

Berberine:

  • Goldenseal (not on focus herb list)* (*contraindicated in pregnancy) – but classic example

Research Evidence:

Strong Evidence:

  • Thyme oil effective against antibiotic-resistant bacteria (MRSA)
  • Garlic demonstrates broad-spectrum antibacterial activity
  • Tea tree oil (not on list) has extensive research

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Respiratory infections
  • Digestive infections
  • Topical infections (wounds, skin)
  • Urinary tract infections

Limitations:

  • Herbs are NOT replacements for antibiotics in serious infections
  • Best for mild-moderate infections or prevention
  • Can support antibiotic therapy (discuss with doctor)

Antiviral: Mechanisms

How Herbs Fight Viruses:

  1. Viral Entry Inhibition:
  • Prevent virus from attaching to and entering cells
  • Block receptor sites
  • Example: Lemon balm against herpes simplex virus
  1. Viral Replication Inhibition:
  • Interfere with virus reproducing inside cells
  • Disrupt viral enzyme function
  1. Immune Stimulation:
  • Enhance immune response to viral infection
  • Increase interferon production (immune signalling molecules)
  1. Direct Virucidal Activity:
  • Some compounds directly inactivate viral particles

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Polyphenols:

  • Rosmarinic acid (lemon balm)—inhibits HSV-1 (Herpes Simplex Virus-1) replication
  • Flavonoids (various)

Volatile Oils:

  • Some have direct antiviral effects

Research Evidence:

Moderate to Strong Evidence:

  • Lemon balm cream reduces HSV-1 (cold sore) healing time
  • Elderberry reduces flu duration and severity (Zakay-Rones et al., 2004)

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Topical for cold sores (lemon balm)
  • Early-stage viral infections (elderberry)
  • Prevention during viral season

Important Note:

  • Most effective when started early
  • Prevention and early intervention most promising uses

Immunomodulator: Balancing Immunity

Plain Language: Regulates immune function (not just “boosting”)

Key Concept:

“Immune boosting” is often misused. True immunomodulators:

  • Enhance weak immunity (under-active)
  • Calm overactive immunity (allergies, autoimmunity)
  • Restore balance (homeostasis)

Mechanism of Action:

  1. Bidirectional Regulation:
  • Increase immune activity when suppressed (infections)
  • Decrease when overactive (inflammation, allergies)
  • This is more sophisticated than simple “boosting”
  1. Cytokine Modulation:
  • Regulate immune signalling molecules (cytokines)
  • Balance pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines
  1. Immune Cell Support:
  • Support proper functioning of various immune cells
  • Enhance phagocytosis (immune cells “eating” pathogens)

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Polysaccharides:

  • Calendula, various mushrooms (not on list)
  • Stimulate immune cell activity

Curcuminoids:

  • Turmeric—modulates inflammatory pathways

Research Evidence:

Strong Evidence:

  • Turmeric modulates immune function and inflammation (Hewlings & Kalman, 2017)
  • Reduces inflammatory cytokines in various conditions

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Chronic inflammation
  • Autoimmune conditions (under professional guidance)
  • Recurrent infections
  • Seasonal allergy support

Tissue & Wound Healing Actions

Vulnerary: The Science of Wound Healing

Plain Language: Promotes wound healing

Mechanism of Action:

Wound healing occurs in overlapping phases. Vulnerary herbs support multiple phases:

1. Haemostasis (Stopping Bleeding):

  • Astringent herbs (yarrow, plantain) constrict blood vessels
  • Promote platelet aggregation and clot formation

2. Inflammation Phase:

  • Anti-inflammatory herbs (calendula) modulate excessive inflammation
  • Antimicrobial herbs (thyme, calendula) prevent infection
  • Balance: need some inflammation for healing, but not excess

3. Proliferation Phase (New Tissue Formation):

  • Fibroblast Stimulation: Herbs stimulate cells that produce collagen
  • Angiogenesis: New blood vessel formation
  • Epithelialisation: New skin cell growth
  • Example: Calendula polysaccharides stimulate granulation tissue

4. Remodelling Phase:

  • Collagen reorganisation
  • Scar formation and maturation

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Polysaccharides:

  • Calendula—stimulate immune cells and tissue regeneration
  • Support fibroblast activity

Triterpenoid Saponins:

  • Calendula (oleanolic acid glycosides)
  • Promote cellular regeneration

Allantoin:

  • Comfrey (external use only)
  • Stimulates cell proliferation

Flavonoids & Carotenoids:

  • Antioxidants protect healing tissue
  • Calendula—high in both

Volatile Oils:

  • Antimicrobial protection during healing

Research Evidence:

Strong Evidence:

  • Calendula significantly accelerates wound healing (multiple RCTs)
  • Reduces healing time for surgical wounds, ulcers
  • Plantain promotes wound closure in animal studies

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Minor cuts, scrapes, abrasions
  • Burns (after cooling)
  • Slow-healing wounds
  • Surgical wound support (external)
  • Diabetic ulcers (with medical supervision)

Preparation Matters:

  • Fresh plant poultice: Fast action for acute wounds
  • Infused oil: For ongoing care
  • Salve: Protection + healing

Safety:

  • Clean wounds before application
  • Watch for signs of infection
  • Deep or serious wounds need medical care

Anti-inflammatory: Multiple Pathways

Plain Language: Reduces inflammation

Understanding Inflammation:

Inflammation is a complex process involving:

  • Immune cell recruitment
  • Release of inflammatory mediators (prostaglandins, leukotrienes, cytokines)
  • Increased blood flow and vascular permeability
  • Tissue changes (redness, heat, swelling, pain)

Mechanism of Action:

Herbs reduce inflammation through multiple pathways:

  1. COX-2 Inhibition:
  • Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme produces prostaglandins
  • Prostaglandins cause pain, fever, inflammation
  • Herbs like turmeric, ginger inhibit COX-2
  • Similar to NSAIDs (ibuprofen) but gentler
  1. LOX Inhibition:
  • Lipoxygenase (LOX) produces leukotrienes
  • Leukotrienes cause inflammation, especially in allergic reactions
  • Calendula’s triterpene alcohols (faradiol) inhibit LOX
  1. NF-κB Pathway Inhibition:
  • NF-κB is a master regulator of inflammation
  • Activates genes for inflammatory cytokines
  • Turmeric (curcumin) inhibits NF-κB activation
  1. Antioxidant Activity:
  • Reduces oxidative stress (closely linked to inflammation)
  • Neutralises free radicals
  • Flavonoids, polyphenols act as antioxidants
  1. Mast Cell Stabilisation:
  • Prevents release of histamine and inflammatory mediators
  • Useful for allergic inflammation

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Curcuminoids:

  • Turmeric (curcumin)—multiple anti-inflammatory pathways

Gingerols & Shogaols:

  • Ginger—COX-2 inhibition, antioxidant

Triterpene Alcohols:

  • Calendula (faradiol)—LOX inhibition (more potent than indomethacin in some studies)

Flavonoids:

  • Widespread (calendula, chamomile, yarrow)—antioxidant, COX/LOX inhibition

Volatile Oils:

  • Eugenol, thymol—anti-inflammatory properties

Research Evidence:

Strong Evidence:

  • Turmeric reduces inflammatory markers in arthritis (Daily et al., 2016)
  • Ginger effective for osteoarthritis pain
  • Calendula reduces inflammation in oral mucositis (chemotherapy side effect)

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Arthritis, joint pain
  • Digestive inflammation (gastritis, IBD)
  • Skin inflammation (eczema, dermatitis)
  • Systemic inflammation

Internal vs. External:

  • Internal: Turmeric, ginger for systemic inflammation
  • External: Calendula for localised skin inflammation

Onset:

  • Acute: Hours to days for symptom relief
  • Chronic: Weeks to months for underlying improvement

Musculoskeletal & Pain Relief Actions

Analgesic: Pain Relief Mechanisms

Plain Language: Relieves pain

Pain Pathways:

Pain is a complex neurological experience involving:

  • Peripheral pain receptors (nociceptors)
  • Nerve transmission to spinal cord and brain
  • Processing in brain (perception of pain)

Herbal Mechanisms:

  1. Anti-inflammatory Analgesics:
  • Reduce pain by reducing inflammation
  • COX-2 inhibitors (turmeric, ginger)
  • Most common herbal pain relief mechanism
  1. Topical Counter-Irritants:
  • Cayenne (capsaicin)—depletes Substance P (pain neurotransmitter)
  • After repeated use, reduces pain sensation
  • “Counter-irritant” creates heat sensation that overrides pain signals
  1. Nerve Modulation:
  • Some herbs affect pain signal transmission
  • Calcium channel blocking (similar to nervine action)
  1. Muscle Relaxation:
  • Antispasmodic herbs reduce muscle tension pain
  • Smooth and skeletal muscle

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Curcuminoids:

  • Turmeric—pain relief via anti-inflammatory action

Gingerols:

  • Ginger—pain relief for arthritis, menstrual cramps

Capsaicin:

  • Cayenne—topical pain relief (depletes Substance P)

Salicylates:

  • Willow bark (not on list)—aspirin-like compounds
  • Our list doesn’t include high-salicylate herbs

Research Evidence:

Strong Evidence:

  • Turmeric reduces pain in knee osteoarthritis (comparable to NSAIDs)
  • Ginger effective for dysmenorrhea (menstrual cramps)
  • Topical capsaicin well-established for neuropathic pain

Clinical Considerations:

Types of Pain:

  • Inflammatory pain: Anti-inflammatory herbs (turmeric, ginger)
  • Muscle pain: Antispasmodic herbs (chamomile, lavender)
  • Neuropathic pain: Topical capsaicin (cayenne)

Onset:

  • Acute pain: Hours to days
  • Chronic pain: Requires consistent use (weeks)

Safety:

  • Generally safer than NSAIDs for long-term use
  • Less GI irritation, kidney stress
  • Still, chronic pain needs professional assessment

Antispasmodic: Muscle Relaxation

Plain Language: Relieves muscle spasms and cramps

Types of Muscle:

  • Smooth muscle: Internal organs (digestive tract, uterus, airways)—involuntary
  • Skeletal muscle: Body movement muscles—voluntary

Herbs affect primarily smooth muscle, though some have skeletal muscle effects too.

Mechanism of Action:

  1. Calcium Channel Blocking:
  • Volatile oils block calcium entry into muscle cells
  • Without calcium influx, muscles can’t contract
  • Example: Menthol in peppermint
  1. Spasmolytic Effect on GI Smooth Muscle:
  • Direct relaxation of intestinal muscle
  • Reduces cramping, bloating
  • Example: Chamomile, fennel, peppermint
  1. Nervous System Calming:
  • Some antispasmodic effect is indirect
  • Nervine herbs calm nervous system → reduces tension → relaxes muscles
  • Example: Lemon balm, chamomile
  1. Anti-inflammatory:
  • Inflammation can cause muscle spasm
  • Reducing inflammation relieves spasm

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Volatile Oils:

  • Menthol, menthone (peppermint)
  • Anethole (fennel)
  • Linalool (lavender, lemon balm)

Flavonoids:

  • Apigenin (chamomile)—smooth muscle relaxation

Research Evidence:

Strong Evidence:

  • Peppermint oil for IBS-related cramping (well-established)
  • Chamomile for menstrual cramps

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Digestive cramping (IBS, gas pains)
  • Menstrual cramps
  • Muscle tension (especially when stress-related)
  • Respiratory spasm (asthma—supportive only)

Preparation Matters:

  • Essential oils most concentrated (use cautiously)
  • Teas effective for digestive spasm
  • Topical application for muscle tension

Hormonal & Reproductive Actions

Emmenagogue: Promoting Menstruation

Plain Language: Stimulates or promotes menstrual flow

CRITICAL SAFETY NOTE:
Emmenagogues can stimulate uterine contractions. NEVER use during pregnancy.

Mechanism of Action:

  1. Uterine Stimulation:
  • 4Some herbs stimulate uterine muscle contractions
  • Increases blood flow to pelvic area
  • Promotes menstrual flow
  1. Hormonal Influence:
  • May have mild effects on reproductive hormones
  • Mechanisms often unclear (traditional use-based)
  1. Circulatory Stimulation:
  • Warming herbs increase blood flow
  • Pelvic circulation increases → promotes menstruation

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Volatile Oils:

  • Various warming herbs (ginger)

Note: Many emmenagogues are not on our list (pennyroyal, mugwort—both potentially toxic).

Research Evidence:

Limited Modern Research:

  • Most evidence is traditional
  • Difficult to research ethically (pregnancy safety concerns)

Strong Traditional Evidence:

  • Used for millennia across cultures for delayed menstruation

Clinical Considerations:

Appropriate Uses:

  • Delayed menstruation (NOT pregnancy)
  • Scanty periods
  • Sluggish cycle

Contraindications:

  • Pregnancy (absolute contraindication)
  • Hormonal birth control (may interfere)
  • Bleeding disorders
  • Heavy menstrual bleeding (makes worse)

Professional Guidance:

  • Delayed periods can have many causes (pregnancy, PCOS, thyroid, stress)
  • Diagnostic workup often needed before using emmenagogues

Galactagogue: Milk Production Support

Plain Language: Supports breast milk production

Mechanism of Action:

  1. Prolactin Stimulation:
  • Prolactin is the hormone that stimulates milk production
  • Some herbs may increase prolactin secretion
  • Example: Fennel, fenugreek (not on list)
  1. Breast Tissue Stimulation:
  • Direct effect on mammary tissue
  • Enhances milk synthesis
  1. Nutritive Support:
  • Some herbs provide nutrients that support lactation
  • Indirect mechanism

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Phytoestrogens:

  • Fennel (anethole)—mild oestrogenic activity may support lactation

Research Evidence:

Moderate Evidence:

  • Fennel and fenugreek show some evidence for increased milk production
  • Studies often small, methodology variable

Strong Traditional Evidence:

  • Used worldwide in traditional postpartum care

Clinical Considerations:

When to Use:

  • Low milk supply (after addressing other causes)
  • Best combined with:
  • Frequent nursing/pumping
  • Adequate hydration
  • Good nutrition
  • Rest

Contraindications:

  • Oestrogen-sensitive conditions (use fennel cautiously)
  • Not for use during pregnancy (only postpartum)

Important Note:

  • Most “low supply” is perception, not reality
  • Ensure good latch, frequent feeding before using herbs
  • Work with lactation consultant

Urinary System Actions

Diuretic: Mechanisms of Increased Urination

Plain Language: Increases urine production and flow

How Kidneys Work (Simplified):

Kidneys filter blood:

  1. Filtration: Water and small molecules enter nephron
  2. Reabsorption: Useful substances (water, electrolytes) reabsorbed
  3. Secretion: Waste products secreted
  4. Excretion: Remaining fluid = urine

Mechanisms of Diuretic Action:

  1. Increased Glomerular Filtration:
  • Increases blood flow to kidneys
  • More blood filtered = more urine
  • Example: Dandelion leaf
  1. Decreased Reabsorption:
  • Reduces water and sodium reabsorption in kidney tubules
  • More water stays in urine
  • Pharmaceutical diuretics work this way; herbs generally milder
  1. Irritant Effect:
  • Mild irritation of urinary tract
  • Increases urine flow
  • Example: Juniper (not on list—can be nephrotoxic in high doses)
  1. Potassium-Sparing:
  • Dandelion is unusual: high in potassium
  • Provides potassium while promoting diuresis
  • Pharmaceutical diuretics often deplete potassium

Key Phytochemical Classes:

Flavonoids:

  • Various (dandelion)

Saponins:

  • Mild diuretic effect

Potassium:

  • Dandelion leaf is very high in potassium

Research Evidence:

Moderate Evidence:

  • Dandelion leaf shows diuretic effect in small studies (Clare et al., 2009)
  • Effect is mild compared to pharmaceutical diuretics

Strong Traditional Evidence:

  • Widespread traditional use

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Mild fluid retention
  • UTI support (flushing bacteria)
  • Hypertension support (mild)

Safety:

  • Generally very safe
  • Monitor if on diuretic medications (additive effect)
  • Ensure adequate hydration (seems counterintuitive but important)

NOT Appropriate:

  • Severe oedema (needs medical treatment)
  • Kidney disease (without professional guidance)

Tonic & Nutritive Actions

Tonic: Building Strength Over Time

Plain Language: Strengthens and nourishes the body or specific organs

Key Concept:

Tonics are NOT for acute use. They:

  • Build strength gradually
  • Support optimal function
  • Prevent deficiency/weakness
  • Taken over weeks to months

Categories of Tonics:

1. Nutritive Tonics:

  • Herbs rich in vitamins, minerals, nutrients
  • Example: Nettle (iron, calcium, vitamins)

2. Organ-Specific Tonics:

  • Support specific organ function
  • Example: Dandelion root (liver tonic)

3. System Tonics:

  • Support entire body system
  • Example: Adaptogens (nervous system tonic)

Mechanism of Action:

Varies by herb, but generally:

  1. Nutritional Support:
  • Provide bioavailable nutrients
  • Support cellular function
  • Example: Nettle’s high mineral content supports various body systems
  1. Improved Organ Function:
  • Enhance specific organ’s ability to do its job
  • Example: Liver tonics support liver’s detoxification, protein synthesis, etc.
  1. Building Resilience:
  • Strengthen tissue
  • Improve stress resistance
  • Support repair and regeneration

Research Evidence:

Variable:

  • Nutritive tonics: Easy to measure nutrient content
  • Organ tonics: Harder to research (long-term, subjective improvements)

Strong Traditional Evidence:

  • Tonic use is foundational in most traditional medicine systems
  • Emphasis on prevention and building strength

Clinical Considerations:

How to Use:

  • Daily use for minimum 4-8 weeks
  • Often 3-6 months for best results
  • Can be taken indefinitely
  • Think of them as “nutritional support”

Applications:

  • Convalescence (recovery from illness)
  • Chronic fatigue
  • Nutritional support
  • General wellness
  • Prevention

Examples from Our List:

  • Nettle: Nutritive tonic (high in minerals)
  • Dandelion root: Liver tonic
  • Tulsi: Nervous system tonic (adaptogen)

Nutritive: Dense Nutrition

Plain Language: Highly nutrient-dense herbs

What Makes an Herb “Nutritive”:

  • High vitamin content
  • High mineral content (especially bioavailable forms)
  • Other beneficial nutrients (chlorophyll, antioxidants)

Mechanism:

Simple: Provides nutrition your body needs for optimal function.

Nettle Example:

Vitamin Content:

  • Vitamin A (beta-carotene)
  • Vitamin C
  • Vitamin K

Mineral Content:

  • Iron (non-heme, but well-absorbed due to vitamin C)
  • Calcium
  • Magnesium
  • Potassium
  • Silica

Other Compounds:

  • Chlorophyll (high)
  • Protein (10-15% in dried leaf)

Research Evidence:

Strong:

  • Nutrient content easily measured and confirmed
  • Bioavailability studies show herbs can provide usable nutrients

Clinical Considerations:

Applications:

  • Nutritional deficiencies (iron, calcium)
  • Supporting increased nutrient needs (pregnancy, breastfeeding, recovery)
  • Complementing diet

How to Use:

  • Daily tea (nettle infusion is classic)
  • Long infusions (overnight) extract more minerals
  • Powdered in smoothies

Advantages Over Supplements:

  • Nutrients in natural form with cofactors
  • Often better absorbed
  • Additional beneficial compounds (antioxidants, etc.)

Organoleptic Properties & Their Significance

The Meaning of Taste in Herbalism

Organoleptic properties = how herbs affect the senses (taste, smell, texture).

In traditional herbalism, taste is considered diagnostic and therapeutic.

Bitter Taste: We’ve Covered This

  • Activates bitter taste receptors
  • Stimulates digestion
  • See detailed section above

Pungent/Spicy Taste: Warming & Stimulating

What It Indicates:

Pungent herbs contain warming compounds, usually volatile oils.

Physiological Effects:

  1. Circulatory Stimulation:
  • Increases blood flow
  • “Warming” sensation
  • Example: Ginger, cayenne
  1. Diaphoretic:
  • Promotes sweating
  • Useful in fevers
  1. Digestive Stimulation:
  • Stimulates secretions (similar to bitters but different mechanism)
  1. Antimicrobial:
  • Pungent volatile oils are often antimicrobial

Examples: Ginger, cayenne, garlic

Sweet Taste: Nourishing

What It Indicates:

Contains sugars, starches, or sweet-tasting compounds.

Physiological Effects:

  1. Nutritive:
  • Provides carbohydrates for energy
  • Sweet roots often nutrient-dense
  1. Demulcent:
  • Often correlates with mucilage content
  • Soothing
  1. Tonic:
  • Building, strengthening

Examples: Liquorice root (not on list), some roots when cooked

Sour Taste: Astringent & Stimulating

What It Indicates:

Contains organic acids.

Physiological Effects:

  1. Digestive Stimulation:
  • Stimulates saliva and gastric secretions
  • Similar to bitters
  1. Astringent:
  • Often accompanies tannins
  • Tightening, toning

Examples: Rose hips (vitamin C = ascorbic acid)

Salty Taste: Mineralising

What It Indicates:

High mineral content.

Physiological Effects:

  1. Nutritive:
  • Provides minerals
  • Supports electrolyte balance

Examples: Nettle, seaweeds (not on main list)

Combining Actions: Synergy in Formulation

The Art and Science of Herbal Combinations

Why Combine Herbs:

  1. Synergy: Combined effect greater than sum of parts
  2. Addressing Multiple Symptoms: Complex conditions need multi-herb approaches
  3. Enhancing Absorption: Some herbs enhance others’ bioavailability
  4. Balancing Actions: Correct unwanted side effects

Synergy Examples:

Turmeric + Black Pepper:

  • Curcumin (turmeric) has poor bioavailability
  • Piperine (black pepper) inhibits curcumin metabolism
  • Increases curcumin absorption 2000%+
  • Mechanism: Piperine inhibits glucuronidation (how liver processes curcumin)

Antimicrobial Blends:

  • Thyme (antibacterial) + Calendula (anti-inflammatory + vulnerary)
  • Addresses infection + inflammation + tissue healing
  • All three actions needed for wound care

Formulation Principles:

Primary Herb (50-70%):

  • Main therapeutic action
  • Example: Chamomile in a sleep blend

Supporting Herbs (20-30%):

  • Enhance primary herb
  • Add complementary actions
  • Example: Lemon balm added to chamomile for anxiety+sleep

Corrective Herbs (5-10%):

  • Improve taste
  • Reduce side effects
  • Example: Ginger to warming blend (improves circulation + taste)

Example Formulation: Digestive Support

Symptoms: Bloating, gas, nervous stomach

Formula:

  • Peppermint (40%)—carminative, antispasmodic
  • Chamomile (30%)—antispasmodic, nervine, anti-inflammatory
  • Ginger (20%)—carminative, digestive stimulant, warming
  • Fennel (10%)—carminative, taste corrective

Rationale:

  • Multiple carminatives for gas relief
  • Nervines for nervous component
  • Ginger warms and stimulates
  • Fennel adds pleasant taste

Conclusion

Herbal terminology represents the distillation of thousands of years of observation, empirical use, and increasingly, scientific validation. Each term describes a category of physiological effect, often with multiple mechanisms contributing to that effect.

Understanding these terms deeply—not just their definitions, but the mechanisms, phytochemistry, and research behind them—transforms herbalism from folklore into an evidence-based practice that respects both tradition and science.

The herbs work. The terms describe how. The mechanisms explain why. Together, they provide a complete framework for understanding plant medicine.

Sources & References

Digestive Actions

Alammar, N., Wang, L., Saberi, B., Nanavati, J., Holtmann, G., Shinohara, R. T., & Mullin, G. E. (2019). The impact of peppermint oil on the irritable bowel syndrome: A meta-analysis of the pooled clinical data. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 19(1), 21.

McMullen, M. K., Whitehouse, J. M., & Towell, A. (2015). Bitters: Time for a new paradigm. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2015, 670504.

Rasyid, A., & Lelo, A. (1999). The effect of curcumin and placebo on human gall-bladder function: An ultrasound study. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 13(2), 245-249.

Respiratory Actions

Kemmerich, B., Eberhardt, R., & Stammer, H. (2006). Evaluation of the efficacy and tolerability of a fixed combination of dry extracts of thyme herb and primrose root in adults suffering from acute bronchitis with productive cough. Arzneimittelforschung, 56(9), 652-660.

Nervous System Actions

Kasper, S., Gastpar, M., Müller, W. E., Volz, H. P., Möller, H. J., Dienel, A., & Schläfke, S. (2010). Silexan, an orally administered Lavandula oil preparation, is effective in the treatment of ‘subsyndromal’ anxiety disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 25(5), 277-287.

Kennedy, D. O., Little, W., & Scholey, A. B. (2004). Modulation of mood and cognitive performance following acute administration of single doses of Melissa officinalis (Lemon Balm). Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 75(3), 669-674.

Mao, J. J., Xie, S. X., Keefe, J. R., Soeller, I., Li, Q. S., & Amsterdam, J. D. (2016). Long-term chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: A randomized clinical trial. Phytomedicine, 23(14), 1735-1742.

Anti-inflammatory & Pain

Daily, J. W., Yang, M., & Park, S. (2016). Efficacy of turmeric extracts and curcumin for alleviating the symptoms of joint arthritis. Journal of Medicinal Food, 19(8), 717-729.

Hewlings, S. J., & Kalman, D. S. (2017). Curcumin: A review of its effects on human health. Foods, 6(10), 92.

Immune Support

Zakay-Rones, Z., Thom, E., Wollan, T., & Wadstein, J. (2004). Randomized study of the efficacy and safety of oral elderberry extract in the treatment of influenza A and B virus infections. Journal of International Medical Research, 32(2), 132-140.

Wound Healing

Preethi, K. C., & Kuttan, R. (2009). Wound healing activity of flower extract of Calendula officinalis. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 125(2), 390-392.

Urinary Actions

Clare, B. A., Conroy, R. S., & Spelman, K. (2009). The diuretic effect in human subjects of an extract of Taraxacum officinale folium over a single day. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 15(8), 929-934.

General References

Bone, K., & Mills, S. (2013). Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine (2nd ed.). Churchill Livingstone.

Hoffmann, D. (2003). Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Healing Arts Press.

Mills, S., & Bone, K. (2005). The Essential Guide to Herbal Safety. Churchill Livingstone.

Williamson, E. M., Driver, S., & Baxter, K. (Eds.). (2013). Stockley’s Herbal Medicines Interactions. Pharmaceutical Press.

Disclaimer: This guide is for educational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Herbal actions and mechanisms described represent current scientific understanding and traditional knowledge, both of which continue to evolve. Always consult qualified healthcare practitioners before using herbal remedies, especially if you are pregnant, nursing, taking medications, or have diagnosed medical conditions. Some herbs mentioned have contraindications or interact with medications – individual herb safety should always be researched before use. When using plants with cultural significance to Māori, approach with respect and seek appropriate guidance from qualified rongoā practitioners. This guide describes Western herbalism approaches and is not a substitute for traditional indigenous knowledge systems. Children under 2 years should not receive herbal preparations without healthcare provider guidance. The mechanisms and actions described are based on in vitro, animal, and clinical studies, but individual responses vary based on genetics, health status, and other factors. This guide uses technical terminology for educational purposes and assumes readers will verify safety and appropriateness of individual herbs before use. The author and publisher assume no liability for adverse reactions resulting from use of herbal remedies.

The Public Herbarium is built on a foundation of scientific integrity, transparency, and care. Research sources are referenced throughout the site wherever possible. Content creation is assisted by AI tools and carefully reviewed for accuracy.